Proton mass. Who and when discovered the proton and neutron

Protons take part in thermonuclear reactions, which are the main source of energy generated by stars. In particular, reactions pp-cycle, which is the source of almost all the energy emitted by the Sun, comes down to the combination of four protons into a helium-4 nucleus with the transformation of two protons into neutrons.

In physics, proton is denoted p(or p+ ). The chemical designation of the proton (considered as a positive hydrogen ion) is H +, the astrophysical designation is HII.

Opening [ | ]

Proton properties[ | ]

The ratio of the proton and electron masses, equal to 1836.152 673 89(17), with an accuracy of 0.002% is equal to the value 6π 5 = 1836.118...

The internal structure of the proton was first experimentally studied by R. Hofstadter by studying collisions of a beam of high-energy electrons (2 GeV) with protons (Nobel Prize in Physics 1961). The proton consists of a heavy core (core) with a radius of cm, with a high density of mass and charge, carrying ≈ 35% (\displaystyle \approx 35\%) electric charge of the proton and the relatively rarefied shell surrounding it. At a distance from ≈ 0, 25 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 0.25\cdot 10^(-13)) before ≈ 1 , 4 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 1.4\cdot 10^(-13)) cm this shell consists mainly of virtual ρ - and π -mesons carrying ≈ 50% (\displaystyle \approx 50\%) electric charge of the proton, then to the distance ≈ 2, 5 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 2.5\cdot 10^(-13)) cm extends a shell of virtual ω - and π -mesons, carrying ~15% of the electric charge of the proton.

The pressure at the center of the proton created by quarks is about 10 35 Pa (10 30 atmospheres), that is, higher than the pressure inside neutron stars.

The magnetic moment of a proton is measured by measuring the ratio of the resonant frequency of precession of the proton's magnetic moment in a given uniform magnetic field and the cyclotron frequency of the proton's circular orbit in the same field.

There are three physical quantities associated with a proton that have the dimension of length:

Measurements of the proton radius using ordinary hydrogen atoms, carried out by various methods since the 1960s, led (CODATA -2014) to the result 0.8751 ± 0.0061 femtometer(1 fm = 10 −15 m). The first experiments with muonic hydrogen atoms (where the electron is replaced by a muon) gave a 4% smaller result for this radius: 0.84184 ± 0.00067 fm. The reasons for this difference are still unclear.

The so-called proton Q w ≈ 1 − 4 sin 2 θ W, which determines its participation in weak interactions through exchange Z 0 boson (similar to how the electric charge of a particle determines its participation in electromagnetic interactions by exchanging a photon) is 0.0719 ± 0.0045, according to experimental measurements of parity violation during the scattering of polarized electrons on protons. The measured value is consistent, within experimental error, with the theoretical predictions of the Standard Model (0.0708 ± 0.0003).

Stability [ | ]

The free proton is stable, experimental studies have not revealed any signs of its decay (lower limit on the lifetime is 2.9⋅10 29 years regardless of the decay channel, 8.2⋅10 33 years for decay into a positron and neutral pion, 6.6⋅ 10 33 years for decay into a positive muon and a neutral pion). Since the proton is the lightest of the baryons, the stability of the proton is a consequence of the law of conservation of baryon number - a proton cannot decay into any lighter particles (for example, into a positron and neutrino) without violating this law. However, many theoretical extensions of the Standard Model predict processes (not yet observed) that would result in baryon number nonconservation and hence proton decay.

A proton bound in an atomic nucleus is capable of capturing an electron from the electron K-, L- or M-shell of the atom (so-called “electron capture”). A proton of the atomic nucleus, having absorbed an electron, turns into a neutron and simultaneously emits a neutrino: p+e − →+ν e . A “hole” in the K-, L-, or M-layer formed by electron capture is filled with an electron from one of the overlying electron layers of the atom, emitting characteristic X-rays corresponding to the atomic number Z− 1, and/or Auger electrons. Over 1000 isotopes from 7 are known
4 to 262
105, decaying by electron capture. At sufficiently high available decay energies (above 2m e c 2 ≈ 1.022 MeV) a competing decay channel opens - positron decay p → +e ++ν e . It should be emphasized that these processes are possible only for a proton in some nuclei, where the missing energy is replenished by the transition of the resulting neutron to a lower nuclear shell; for a free proton they are prohibited by the law of conservation of energy.

The source of protons in chemistry are mineral (nitric, sulfuric, phosphoric and others) and organic (formic, acetic, oxalic and others) acids. In an aqueous solution, acids are capable of dissociation with the elimination of a proton, forming a hydronium cation.

In the gas phase, protons are obtained by ionization - the removal of an electron from a hydrogen atom. The ionization potential of an unexcited hydrogen atom is 13.595 eV. When molecular hydrogen is ionized by fast electrons at atmospheric pressure and room temperature, the molecular hydrogen ion (H 2 +) is initially formed - a physical system consisting of two protons held together at a distance of 1.06 by one electron. The stability of such a system, according to Pauling, is caused by the resonance of an electron between two protons with a “resonance frequency” equal to 7·10 14 s −1. When the temperature rises to several thousand degrees, the composition of hydrogen ionization products changes in favor of protons - H +.

Application [ | ]

Beams of accelerated protons are used in experimental physics of elementary particles (study of scattering processes and production of beams of other particles), in medicine (proton therapy for cancer).

see also [ | ]

Notes [ | ]

1. http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/Table/allascii.txt Fundamental Physical Constants --- Complete Listing
2. CODATA Value: proton mass
3. CODATA Value: proton mass in u
4. Ahmed S.; et al. (2004). “Constraints on Nucleon Decay via Invisible Modes from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory.” Physical Review Letters. 92 (10): 102004. arXiv: hep-ex/0310030. Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92j2004A. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.102004. PMID.
5. CODATA Value: proton mass energy equivalent in MeV
6. CODATA Value: proton-electron mass ratio
7. , With. 67.
8. Hofstadter P. Structure of nuclei and nucleons // Phys. - 1963. - T. 81, No. 1. - P. 185-200. - ISSN. - URL: http://ufn.ru/ru/articles/1963/9/e/
9. Shchelkin K. I. Virtual processes and the structure of the nucleon // Physics of the Microworld - M.: Atomizdat, 1965. - P. 75.
10. Elastic scattering, peripheral interactions and resonances // High Energy Particles. High energies in space and laboratories - M.: Nauka, 1965. - P. 132.

DEFINITION

Proton called a stable particle belonging to the class of hadrons, which is the nucleus of a hydrogen atom.

Scientists disagree on which scientific event should be considered the discovery of the proton. An important role in the discovery of the proton was played by:

1. creation of a planetary model of the atom by E. Rutherford;
2. discovery of isotopes by F. Soddy, J. Thomson, F. Aston;
3. observations of the behavior of the nuclei of hydrogen atoms when they are knocked out by alpha particles from nitrogen nuclei by E. Rutherford.

The first photographs of proton tracks were obtained by P. Blackett in a cloud chamber while studying the processes of artificial transformation of elements. Blackett studied the process of capture of alpha particles by nitrogen nuclei. In this process, a proton was emitted and the nitrogen nucleus was converted into an isotope of oxygen.

Protons, together with neutrons, are part of the nuclei of all chemical elements. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the atomic number of the element in the periodic table D.I. Mendeleev.

A proton is a positively charged particle. Its charge is equal in magnitude to the elementary charge, that is, the value of the electron charge. The charge of a proton is often denoted as , then we can write that:

It is currently believed that the proton is not an elementary particle. It has a complex structure and consists of two u-quarks and one d-quark. The electric charge of a u-quark () is positive and it is equal to

The electric charge of a d-quark () is negative and equal to:

Quarks connect the exchange of gluons, which are field quanta; they endure strong interaction. The fact that protons have several point scattering centers in their structure is confirmed by experiments on the scattering of electrons by protons.

The proton has a finite size, which scientists are still arguing about. Currently, the proton is represented as a cloud that has a blurred boundary. Such a boundary consists of constantly emerging and annihilating virtual particles. But in most simple problems, a proton can, of course, be considered a point charge. The rest mass of a proton () is approximately equal to:

The mass of a proton is 1836 times greater than the mass of an electron.

Protons take part in all fundamental interactions: strong interactions unite protons and neutrons into nuclei, electrons and protons join together in atoms using electromagnetic interactions. As a weak interaction, we can cite, for example, the beta decay of a neutron (n):

where p is proton; — electron; - antineutrino.

Proton decay has not yet been obtained. This is one of the important modern problems of physics, since this discovery would be a significant step in understanding the unity of the forces of nature.

Examples of problem solving

EXAMPLE 1

Exercise	The nuclei of the sodium atom are bombarded with protons. What is the force of electrostatic repulsion of a proton from the nucleus of an atom if the proton is at a distance m. Consider that the charge of the nucleus of a sodium atom is 11 times greater than the charge of a proton. The influence of the electron shell of the sodium atom can be ignored.
Solution	As a basis for solving the problem, we will take Coulomb’s law, which can be written for our problem (assuming the particles are pointlike) as follows: where F is the force of electrostatic interaction of charged particles; Cl is the proton charge; - charge of the nucleus of the sodium atom; - dielectric constant of vacuum; - electrical constant. Using the data we have, we can calculate the required repulsive force:
Answer	N

EXAMPLE 2

Proton (elementary particle)

The field theory of elementary particles, operating within the framework of SCIENCE, is based on a foundation proven by PHYSICS:

• Classical electrodynamics,
• Quantum mechanics (without virtual particles that contradict the law of conservation of energy),
• Conservation laws are fundamental laws of physics.

Using elementary particles that do not exist in nature, inventing fundamental interactions that do not exist in nature, or replacing interactions existing in nature with fabulous ones, ignoring the laws of nature, engaging in mathematical manipulations with them (creating the appearance of science) - this is the lot of FAIRY TALES passed off as science. As a result, physics slipped into the world of mathematical fairy tales. Fairy-tale characters of the Standard Model (quarks with gluons), together with fairy-tale gravitons and fairy tales of “Quantum Theory,” have already penetrated physics textbooks - and are misleading children, passing off mathematical fairy tales as reality. Supporters of honest New Physics tried to resist this, but the forces were not equal. And so it was until 2010, before the advent of the field theory of elementary particles, when the struggle for the revival of PHYSICS-SCIENCE moved to the level of open confrontation between genuine scientific theory and mathematical fairy tales that seized power in the physics of the microworld (and not only).

But humanity would not have known about the achievements of New Physics without the Internet, search engines and the ability to freely speak the truth on the pages of the site. As for publications that make money from science, who reads them today for money when it is possible to quickly and freely obtain the required information on the Internet.

1 A proton is an elementary particle
2 When physics remained a science
3 Proton in physics
4 Proton radius
5 Magnetic moment of a proton
6 Electric field of a proton

6.1 Proton electric field in the far zone
6.2 Electric charges of a proton
6.3 Electric field of a proton in the near zone

7 Proton rest mass
8 Proton lifetime
9 The truth about the Standard Model
10 New physics: Proton - summary

Ernest Rutherford in 1919, irradiating nitrogen nuclei with alpha particles, observed the formation of hydrogen nuclei. Rutherford called the particle resulting from the collision a proton. The first photographs of proton tracks in a cloud chamber were taken in 1925 by Patrick Blackett. But hydrogen ions themselves (which are protons) were known long before Rutherford’s experiments.
Today, in the 21st century, physics can say much more about protons.

1 Proton is an elementary particle

Physics' ideas about the structure of the proton changed as physics developed.
Physics initially considered the proton to be an elementary particle until 1964, when GellMann and Zweig independently proposed the quark hypothesis.

Initially, the quark model of hadrons was limited to only three hypothetical quarks and their antiparticles. This made it possible to correctly describe the spectrum of elementary particles known at that time, without taking into account leptons, which did not fit into the proposed model and therefore were recognized as elementary, along with quarks. The price for this was the introduction of fractional electric charges that do not exist in nature. Then, as physics developed and new experimental data became available, the quark model gradually grew and transformed, eventually becoming the Standard Model.

Physicists have been diligently searching for new hypothetical particles. The search for quarks was carried out in cosmic rays, in nature (since their fractional electric charge cannot be compensated) and at accelerators.
Decades passed, the power of accelerators grew, and the result of the search for hypothetical quarks was always the same: Quarks are NOT found in nature.

Seeing the prospect of the death of the quark (and then the Standard) model, its supporters composed and palmed off to humanity a fairy tale that traces of quarks were observed in some experiments. - It is impossible to verify this information - experimental data is processed using the Standard Model, and it will always give out something as what it needs. The history of physics knows examples when, instead of one particle, another was slipped in - the last such manipulation of experimental data was the slipping of a vector meson as a fabulous Higgs boson, supposedly responsible for the mass of particles, but at the same time not creating their gravitational field. This mathematical tale was even awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. In our case, standing waves of an alternating electromagnetic field, about which wave theories of elementary particles were written, were slipped in as fairy quarks.

When the throne under the standard model began to shake again, its supporters composed and slipped humanity a new fairy tale for the little ones, called “Confinement.” Any thinking person will immediately see in it a mockery of the law of conservation of energy - a fundamental law of nature. But supporters of the Standard Model do not want to see REALITY.

2 When physics remained a science

When physics still remained a science, the truth was determined not by the opinion of the majority - but by experiment. This is the fundamental difference between PHYSICS-SCIENCE and mathematical fairy tales passed off as physics.
All experiments searching for hypothetical quarks(except, of course, for slipping in your beliefs under the guise of experimental data) have clearly shown: there are NO quarks in nature.

Now supporters of the Standard Model are trying to replace the result of all experiments, which became a death sentence for the Standard Model, with their collective opinion, passing it off as reality. But no matter how long the fairy tale continues, there will still be an end. The only question is what kind of end it will be: supporters of the Standard Model will show intelligence, courage and change their positions following the unanimous verdict of experiments (or rather: the verdict of NATURE), or they will be consigned to history amid universal laughter New physics - physics of the 21st century, like storytellers who tried to deceive all of humanity. The choice is theirs.

Now about the proton itself.

3 Proton in physics

Proton - elementary particle quantum number L=3/2 (spin = 1/2) - baryon group, proton subgroup, electric charge +e (systematization according to the field theory of elementary particles).
According to the field theory of elementary particles (a theory built on a scientific foundation and the only one that received the correct spectrum of all elementary particles), a proton consists of a rotating polarized alternating electromagnetic field with a constant component. All the unfounded statements of the Standard Model that the proton supposedly consists of quarks have nothing to do with reality. - Physics has experimentally proven that the proton has electromagnetic fields, and also a gravitational field. Physics brilliantly guessed that elementary particles not only have, but consist of, electromagnetic fields 100 years ago, but it was not possible to construct a theory until 2010. Now, in 2015, a theory of gravity of elementary particles also appeared, which established the electromagnetic nature of gravity and obtained the equations of the gravitational field of elementary particles, different from the equations of gravity, on the basis of which more than one mathematical fairy tale in physics was built.

At the moment, the field theory of elementary particles (unlike the Standard Model) does not contradict experimental data on the structure and spectrum of elementary particles and therefore can be considered by physics as a theory that works in nature.

Structure of the electromagnetic field of a proton(E-constant electric field, H-constant magnetic field, alternating electromagnetic field is marked in yellow)
Energy balance (percentage of total internal energy):

• constant electric field (E) - 0.346%,
• constant magnetic field (H) - 7.44%,
• alternating electromagnetic field - 92.21%.

The electric field of a proton consists of two regions: an outer region with a positive charge and an inner region with a negative charge. The difference in the charges of the outer and inner regions determines the total electric charge of the proton +e. Its quantization is based on the geometry and structure of elementary particles.

And this is what the fundamental interactions of elementary particles that actually exist in nature look like:

4 Proton radius

The field theory of elementary particles defines the radius (r) of a particle as the distance from the center to the point at which the maximum mass density is achieved.

For a proton, this will be 3.4212 ∙10 -16 m. To this we must add the thickness of the electromagnetic field layer, and the radius of the region of space occupied by the proton will be obtained:

For a proton this will be 4.5616 ∙10 -16 m. Thus, the outer boundary of the proton is located at a distance of 4.5616 ∙10 -16 m from the center of the particle. A small part of the mass concentrated in the constant electric and constant magnetic field of the proton, according to with the laws of electrodynamics, is outside this radius.

5 Magnetic moment of a proton

In contrast to quantum theory, the field theory of elementary particles states that the magnetic fields of elementary particles are not created by the spin rotation of electric charges, but exist simultaneously with a constant electric field as a constant component of the electromagnetic field. That's why All elementary particles with quantum number L>0 have constant magnetic fields.
The field theory of elementary particles does not consider the magnetic moment of the proton to be anomalous - its value is determined by a set of quantum numbers to the extent that quantum mechanics works in an elementary particle.
So the main magnetic moment of a proton is created by two currents:

• (+) with magnetic moment +2 (eħ/m 0 s)
• (-) with magnetic moment -0.5 (eħ/m 0 s)

When physics assumed that the magnetic moments of elementary particles are created by the spin rotation of their electric charge, appropriate units were proposed to measure them: for a proton it is eh/2m 0p c (remember that the spin of a proton is 1/2) called the nuclear magneton. Now 1/2 could be omitted, as not carrying a semantic load, and left simply eh/m 0p c.

But seriously, there are no electric currents inside elementary particles, but there are magnetic fields (and there are no electric charges, but there are electric fields). It is impossible to replace genuine magnetic fields of elementary particles with magnetic fields of currents (as well as genuine electric fields of elementary particles with fields of electric charges), without loss of accuracy - these fields have a different nature. There is some other electrodynamics here - Electrodynamics of Field Physics, which has yet to be created, like Field Physics itself.

6 Electric field of a proton

6.1 Proton electric field in the far zone

Physics' knowledge of the structure of the proton's electric field has changed as physics has developed. It was initially believed that the electric field of a proton is the field of a point electric charge +e. For this field there will be:
potential electric field of a proton at point (A) in the far zone (r > > r p) exactly, in the SI system is equal to:

tension E of the proton electric field in the far zone (r > > r p) exactly, in the SI system is equal to:

Where n = r/|r| - unit vector from the proton center in the direction of the observation point (A), r - distance from the proton center to the observation point, e - elementary electric charge, vectors are in bold, ε 0 - electric constant, r p =Lħ/(m 0~ c ) is the radius of a proton in field theory, L is the main quantum number of a proton in field theory, ħ is Planck’s constant, m 0~ is the amount of mass contained in an alternating electromagnetic field of a proton at rest, C is the speed of light. (There is no multiplier in the GHS system. SI Multiplier.)

These mathematical expressions are correct for the far zone of the proton’s electric field: r p , but physics then assumed that their validity also extended to the near zone, up to distances of the order of 10 -14 cm.

6.2 Electric charges of a proton

In the first half of the 20th century, physics believed that a proton had only one electric charge and it was equal to +e.

After the emergence of the quark hypothesis, physics suggested that inside a proton there are not one, but three electric charges: two electric charges +2e/3 and one electric charge -e/3. In total, these charges give +e. This was done because physics suggested that the proton has a complex structure and consists of two up quarks with a charge of +2e/3 and one d quark with a charge of -e/3. But quarks were not found either in nature or in accelerators at any energies, and it remained either to take their existence on faith (which is what the supporters of the Standard Model did) or to look for another structure of elementary particles. But at the same time, experimental information about elementary particles was constantly accumulating in physics, and when it accumulated enough to rethink what had been done, the field theory of elementary particles was born.

According to the field theory of elementary particles, the constant electric field of elementary particles with quantum number L>0, both charged and neutral, is created by the constant component of the electromagnetic field of the corresponding elementary particle(it is not the electric charge that is the root cause of the electric field, as physics believed in the 19th century, but the electric fields of elementary particles are such that they correspond to the fields of electric charges). And the field of electric charge arises as a result of the presence of asymmetry between the outer and inner hemispheres, generating electric fields of opposite signs. For charged elementary particles, a field of an elementary electric charge is generated in the far zone, and the sign of the electric charge is determined by the sign of the electric field generated by the outer hemisphere. In the near zone, this field has a complex structure and is a dipole, but it does not have a dipole moment. For an approximate description of this field as a system of point charges, at least 6 “quarks” inside the proton will be required - it will be more accurate if we take 8 “quarks”. It is clear that the electric charges of such “quarks” will be completely different from what the standard model (with its quarks) considers.

The field theory of elementary particles has established that the proton, like any other positively charged elementary particle, can be distinguished two electric charges and, accordingly, two electric radii:

• electric radius of the external constant electric field (charge q + =+1.25e) - r q+ = 4.39 10 -14 cm,
• electric radius of the internal constant electric field (charge q - = -0.25e) - r q- = 2.45 10 -14 cm.

The values ​​of the electric radii for each elementary particle are unique and are determined by the principal quantum number in the field theory L, the value of the rest mass, the percentage of energy contained in the alternating electromagnetic field (where quantum mechanics works) and the structure of the constant component of the electromagnetic field of the elementary particle (the same for all elementary particles with given by the principal quantum number L), generating an external constant electric field. The electric radius indicates the average location of an electric charge uniformly distributed around the circumference, creating a similar electric field. Both electric charges lie in the same plane (the plane of rotation of the alternating electromagnetic field of the elementary particle) and have a common center that coincides with the center of rotation of the alternating electromagnetic field of the elementary particle.

6.3 Electric field of a proton in the near zone

Knowing the magnitude of the electric charges inside an elementary particle and their location, it is possible to determine the electric field created by them.

electric field of a proton in the near zone (r~r p), in the SI system, as a vector sum, is approximately equal to:

Where n+ = r +/|r + | - unit vector from the near (1) or far (2) point of proton charge q + in the direction of the observation point (A), n- = r-/|r - | - unit vector from the near (1) or far (2) point of the proton charge q - in the direction of the observation point (A), r - the distance from the center of the proton to the projection of the observation point onto the proton plane, q + - external electric charge +1.25e, q - - internal electric charge -0.25e, vectors are highlighted in bold, ε 0 - electrical constant, z - height of the observation point (A) (distance from the observation point to the proton plane), r 0 - normalization parameter. (There is no multiplier in the GHS system. SI Multiplier.)

This mathematical expression is a sum of vectors and must be calculated according to the rules of vector addition, since this is a field of two distributed electric charges (+1.25e and -0.25e). The first and third terms correspond to the near points of the charges, the second and fourth - to the far ones. This mathematical expression does not work in the internal (ring) region of the proton, which generates its constant fields (if two conditions are simultaneously met: ħ/m 0~ c
Electric field potential proton at point (A) in the near zone (r~r p), in the SI system is approximately equal to:

Where r 0 is a normalizing parameter, the value of which may differ from r 0 in formula E. (In the SGS system there is no factor SI Multiplier.) This mathematical expression does not work in the internal (ring) region of the proton, generating its constant fields (with the simultaneous execution of two conditions: ħ/m 0~ c
Calibration of r 0 for both near-field expressions must be performed at the boundary of the region generating constant proton fields.

7 Proton rest mass

In accordance with classical electrodynamics and Einstein’s formula, the rest mass of elementary particles with quantum number L>0, including the proton, is defined as the equivalent of the energy of their electromagnetic fields:

where the definite integral is taken over the entire electromagnetic field of an elementary particle, E is the electric field strength, H is the magnetic field strength. All components of the electromagnetic field are taken into account here: constant electric field, constant magnetic field, alternating electromagnetic field. This small, but very physics-capacious formula, on the basis of which the equations for the gravitational field of elementary particles are derived, will send more than one fairy-tale “theory” to the scrap heap - that’s why some of their authors will hate it.

As follows from the above formula, the value of the rest mass of a proton depends on the conditions in which the proton is located. Thus, by placing a proton in a constant external electric field (for example, an atomic nucleus), we will affect E 2, which will affect the mass of the proton and its stability. A similar situation will arise when a proton is placed in a constant magnetic field. Therefore, some properties of a proton inside an atomic nucleus differ from the same properties of a free proton in a vacuum, far from fields.

8 Proton lifetime

The proton lifetime established by physics corresponds to a free proton.

The field theory of elementary particles states that the lifetime of an elementary particle depends on the conditions in which it is located. By placing a proton in an external field (such as an electric one), we change the energy contained in its electromagnetic field. You can choose the sign of the external field so that the internal energy of the proton increases. It is possible to select such a value of the external field strength that it becomes possible for the proton to decay into a neutron, positron, and electron neutrino, and therefore the proton becomes unstable. This is exactly what is observed in atomic nuclei, in which the electric field of neighboring protons triggers the decay of the proton of the nucleus. When additional energy is introduced into the nucleus, proton decays can begin at a lower external field strength.

One interesting feature: during the decay of a proton in an atomic nucleus, in the electromagnetic field of the nucleus, a positron is born from the energy of the electromagnetic field - from “matter” (proton) “antimatter” (positron) is born!!! and this does not surprise anyone.

9 The truth about the Standard Model

Now let’s get acquainted with the information that supporters of the Standard Model will not allow to be published on “politically correct” sites (such as the world’s Wikipedia) on which opponents of the New Physics can mercilessly delete (or distort) the information of supporters of the New Physics, as a result of which the TRUTH has fallen victim of politics:

In 1964, Gellmann and Zweig independently proposed a hypothesis for the existence of quarks, from which, in their opinion, hadrons are composed. The new particles were endowed with a fractional electric charge that does not exist in nature.
Leptons did NOT fit into this Quark model, which later grew into the Standard Model, and therefore were recognized as truly elementary particles.
To explain the connection of quarks in the hadron, the existence in nature of strong interaction and its carriers, gluons, was assumed. Gluons, as expected in Quantum Theory, were endowed with unit spin, the identity of particle and antiparticle, and zero rest mass, like a photon.
In reality, in nature there is not a strong interaction of hypothetical quarks, but nuclear forces of nucleons - and these are different concepts.

50 years have passed. Quarks were never found in nature and a new mathematical fairy tale was invented for us called “Confinement”. A thinking person can easily see in it a blatant disregard for the fundamental law of nature - the law of conservation of energy. But a thinking person will do this, and the storytellers received an excuse that suited them.

Gluons have also NOT been found in nature. The fact is that only vector mesons (and one more of the excited states of mesons) can have unit spin in nature, but each vector meson has an antiparticle. - That's why vector mesons are not suitable candidates for “gluons”. The first nine excited states of mesons remain, but 2 of them contradict the Standard Model itself and the Standard Model does not recognize their existence in nature, and the rest have been well studied by physics, and it will not be possible to pass them off as fabulous gluons. There is one last option: passing off a bound state of a pair of leptons (muons or tau leptons) as a gluon - but even this can be calculated during decay.

So, There are also no gluons in nature, just as there are no quarks and the fictitious strong interaction in nature..
You think that supporters of the Standard Model do not understand this - they still do, but it’s just sickening to admit the fallacy of what they have been doing for decades. That’s why we see new mathematical fairy tales (string “theory”, etc.).

10 New physics: Proton - summary

In the main part of the article I did not talk in detail about fairy quarks (with fairy gluons), since they are NOT in nature and there is no point in filling your head with fairy tales (unnecessarily) - and without the fundamental elements of the foundation: quarks with gluons, the standard model collapsed - the time of its dominance in physics COMPLETED (see Standard Model).

You can ignore the place of electromagnetism in nature for as long as you like (meeting it at every step: light, thermal radiation, electricity, television, radio, telephone communications, including cellular, the Internet, without which humanity would not have known about the existence of the Field Theory elementary particles, ...), and continue to invent new fairy tales to replace the bankrupt ones, passing them off as science; you can, with persistence worthy of better use, continue to repeat the memorized TALES of the Standard Model and Quantum Theory; but electromagnetic fields in nature were, are, will be and can do just fine without fairy-tale virtual particles, as well as gravity created by electromagnetic fields, but fairy tales have a time of birth and a time when they cease to influence people. As for nature, it DOES NOT care about fairy tales or any other literary activity of man, even if the Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded for them. Nature is structured the way it is structured, and the task of PHYSICS-SCIENCE is to understand and describe it.

Now a new world has opened before you - the world of dipole fields, the existence of which physics of the 20th century did not even suspect. You saw that a proton has not one, but two electric charges (external and internal) and two corresponding electric radii. You saw what the rest mass of a proton consists of and that the imaginary Higgs boson was out of work (the decisions of the Nobel Committee are not laws of nature yet...). Moreover, the magnitude of the mass and lifetime depend on the fields in which the proton is located. Just because a free proton is stable does not mean that it will remain stable always and everywhere (proton decays are observed in atomic nuclei). All this goes beyond the concepts that dominated physics in the second half of the twentieth century. - Physics of the 21st century - New physics moves to a new level of knowledge of matter, and new interesting discoveries await us.

Vladimir Gorunovich

Hydrogen, an element that has the simplest structure. It has a positive charge and an almost unlimited lifetime. It is the most stable particle in the Universe. The protons produced by the Big Bang have not yet decayed. The proton mass is 1.627*10-27 kg or 938.272 eV. More often this value is expressed in electronvolts.

The proton was discovered by the “father” of nuclear physics, Ernest Rutherford. He put forward the hypothesis that the nuclei of atoms of all chemical elements consist of protons, since their mass exceeds the nucleus of a hydrogen atom by an integer number of times. Rutherford performed an interesting experiment. At that time, the natural radioactivity of some elements had already been discovered. Using alpha radiation (alpha particles are high-energy helium nuclei), the scientist irradiated nitrogen atoms. As a result of this interaction, a particle flew out. Rutherford suggested that it was a proton. Further experiments in a Wilson bubble chamber confirmed his assumption. So in 1913, a new particle was discovered, but Rutherford’s hypothesis about the composition of the nucleus turned out to be untenable.

Discovery of the neutron

The great scientist found an error in his calculations and put forward a hypothesis about the existence of another particle that is part of the nucleus and has almost the same mass as a proton. Experimentally, he could not detect it.

This was done in 1932 by the English scientist James Chadwick. He conducted an experiment in which he bombarded beryllium atoms with high-energy alpha particles. As a result of the nuclear reaction, a particle was emitted from the beryllium nucleus, later called a neutron. For his discovery, Chadwick received the Nobel Prize three years later.

The mass of a neutron really differs little from the mass of a proton (1.622 * 10-27 kg), but this particle does not have a charge. In this sense, it is neutral and at the same time capable of causing fission of heavy nuclei. Due to the lack of charge, a neutron can easily pass through the high Coulomb potential barrier and penetrate into the structure of the nucleus.

The proton and neutron have quantum properties (they can exhibit the properties of particles and waves). Neutron radiation is used for medical purposes. High penetrating ability allows this radiation to ionize deep-seated tumors and other malignant formations and detect them. In this case, the particle energy is relatively low.

The neutron, unlike the proton, is an unstable particle. Its lifetime is about 900 seconds. It decays into a proton, an electron and an electron neutrino.

, electromagnetic and gravitational

Protons take part in thermonuclear reactions, which are the main source of energy generated by stars. In particular, reactions pp-cycle, which is the source of almost all the energy emitted by the Sun, comes down to the combination of four protons into a helium-4 nucleus with the transformation of two protons into neutrons.

In physics, proton is denoted p(or p+ ). The chemical designation of the proton (considered as a positive hydrogen ion) is H +, the astrophysical designation is HII.

Opening

Proton properties

The ratio of the proton and electron masses, equal to 1836.152 673 89(17), with an accuracy of 0.002% is equal to the value 6π 5 = 1836.118...

The internal structure of the proton was first experimentally studied by R. Hofstadter by studying collisions of a beam of high-energy electrons (2 GeV) with protons (Nobel Prize in Physics 1961). The proton consists of a heavy core (core) with a radius of cm, with a high density of mass and charge, carrying ≈ 35% (\displaystyle \approx 35\,\%) electric charge of the proton and the relatively rarefied shell surrounding it. At a distance from ≈ 0 , 25 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 0(,)25\cdot 10^(-13)) before ≈ 1 , 4 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 1(,)4\cdot 10^(-13)) cm this shell consists mainly of virtual ρ - and π -mesons carrying ≈ 50% (\displaystyle \approx 50\,\%) electric charge of the proton, then to the distance ≈ 2 , 5 ⋅ 10 − 13 (\displaystyle \approx 2(,)5\cdot 10^(-13)) cm extends a shell of virtual ω - and π -mesons, carrying ~15% of the electric charge of the proton.

The pressure at the center of the proton created by quarks is about 10 35 Pa (10 30 atmospheres), that is, higher than the pressure inside neutron stars.

The magnetic moment of a proton is measured by measuring the ratio of the resonant frequency of precession of the proton's magnetic moment in a given uniform magnetic field and the cyclotron frequency of the proton's circular orbit in the same field.

There are three physical quantities associated with a proton that have the dimension of length:

Measurements of the proton radius using ordinary hydrogen atoms, carried out by various methods since the 1960s, led (CODATA -2014) to the result 0.8751 ± 0.0061 femtometer(1 fm = 10 −15 m). The first experiments with muonic hydrogen atoms (where the electron is replaced by a muon) gave a 4% smaller result for this radius: 0.84184 ± 0.00067 fm. The reasons for this difference are still unclear.

The so-called weak charge of the proton Q w ≈ 1 − 4 sin 2 θ W, which determines its participation in weak interactions through exchange Z 0 boson (similar to how the electric charge of a particle determines its participation in electromagnetic interactions by exchanging a photon) is 0.0719 ± 0.0045, according to experimental measurements of parity violation during the scattering of polarized electrons on protons. The measured value is consistent, within experimental error, with the theoretical predictions of the Standard Model (0.0708 ± 0.0003).

Stability

The free proton is stable, experimental studies have not revealed any signs of its decay (lower limit on the lifetime is 2.9⋅10 29 years regardless of the decay channel, 8.2⋅10 33 years for decay into a positron and neutral pion, 6.6⋅ 10 33 years for decay into a positive muon and a neutral pion). Since the proton is the lightest of the baryons, the stability of the proton is a consequence of the law of conservation of baryon number - a proton cannot decay into any lighter particles (for example, into a positron and neutrino) without violating this law. However, many theoretical extensions of the Standard Model predict processes (not yet observed) that would result in baryon number nonconservation and hence proton decay.

A proton bound in an atomic nucleus is capable of capturing an electron from the electron K-, L- or M-shell of the atom (so-called “electron capture”). A proton of the atomic nucleus, having absorbed an electron, turns into a neutron and simultaneously emits a neutrino: p+e − →+ν e . A “hole” in the K-, L-, or M-layer formed by electron capture is filled with an electron from one of the overlying electron layers of the atom, emitting characteristic X-rays corresponding to the atomic number Z− 1, and/or Auger electrons. Over 1000 isotopes from 7 are known
4 to 262
105, decaying by electron capture. At sufficiently high available decay energies (above 2m e c 2 ≈ 1.022 MeV) a competing decay channel opens - positron decay p → +e ++ν e . It should be emphasized that these processes are possible only for a proton in some nuclei, where the missing energy is replenished by the transition of the resulting neutron to a lower nuclear shell; for a free proton they are prohibited by the law of conservation of energy.

The source of protons in chemistry are mineral (nitric, sulfuric, phosphoric and others) and organic (formic, acetic, oxalic and others) acids. In an aqueous solution, acids are capable of dissociation with the elimination of a proton, forming a hydronium cation.

In the gas phase, protons are obtained by ionization - the removal of an electron from a hydrogen atom. The ionization potential of an unexcited hydrogen atom is 13.595 eV. When molecular hydrogen is ionized by fast electrons at atmospheric pressure and room temperature, the molecular hydrogen ion (H 2 +) is initially formed - a physical system consisting of two protons held together at a distance of 1.06 by one electron. The stability of such a system, according to Pauling, is caused by the resonance of an electron between two protons with a “resonance frequency” equal to 7·10 14 s −1. When the temperature rises to several thousand degrees, the composition of hydrogen ionization products changes in favor of protons - H +.

Application

see also

Notes

1. http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/Table/allascii.txt Fundamental Physical Constants --- Complete Listing
2. CODATA Value: proton mass
3. CODATA Value: proton mass in u
4. Ahmed S.; et al. (2004). “Constraints on Nucleon Decay via Invisible Modes from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory.” Physical Review Letters. 92 (10): 102004. arXiv: hep-ex/0310030. Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92j2004A. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.102004. PMID.
5. CODATA Value: proton mass energy equivalent in MeV
6. CODATA Value: proton-electron mass ratio
7. , With. 67.
8. Hofstadter P. Structure of nuclei and nucleons // Phys. - 1963. - T. 81, No. 1. - P. 185-200. - ISSN. - URL: http://ufn.ru/ru/articles/1963/9/e/
9. Shchelkin K. I. Virtual processes and the structure of the nucleon // Physics of the Microworld - M.: Atomizdat, 1965. - P. 75.
10. Zhdanov G. B. Elastic scattering, peripheral interactions and resonances // High Energy Particles. High energies in space and laboratories - M.: Nauka, 1965. - P. 132.
11. Burkert V. D., Elouadrhiri L., Girod F. X. The pressure distribution inside the proton // Nature. - 2018. - May (vol. 557, no. 7705). - P. 396-399. - DOI:10.1038/s41586-018-0060-z.
12. Bethe, G., Morrison F. Elementary theory of the nucleus. - M: IL, 1956. - P. 48.