The 4 Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Review of the Four Noble Truths

(Sansk. chatvari aryasatyani) - four main provisions (axioms, truths) expressed by the Buddha after achieving enlightenment. These truths are the foundation of all Buddhist schools, regardless of region or name.

Four Noble Truths

Seeing Siddhartha under the tree, they wanted to say something offensive to him, because they believed that he had betrayed their teachings. However, when they got closer to him, they could not say anything other than: “How did you do that? Why are you glowing like that?”

And Buddha gave his first teachings, which were called the four noble truths:

First truth

Descriptions and explanations in books

Book Joyful Wisdom

Having completed his observation, he realized that true freedom does not lie in leaving life, but in a deeper and more conscious participation in all its processes. His first thought was: “Nobody will believe this.” Whether prompted, as the legends say, by the calls of the gods or by overwhelming compassion for mankind, he finally left Bodhgaya and traveled west to the ancient city of Varanasi, where, in an open area known as the Deer Park, he met his former ascetic companions. Although at first they almost rejected him with contempt because he had betrayed the path of severe austerity, yet they could not help but notice that he radiated a confidence and contentment that surpassed anything they had achieved. They sat down to listen to what he had to say. His words were very convincing and so logical that these listeners became his first followers and students.

The principles that the Buddha outlined in Deer Park are usually called the Four Noble Truths. They contain a simple, straightforward analysis of the difficulties and possibilities of the human condition. This analysis constitutes the first of the so-called "Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma" - successive cycles of teachings penetrating the nature of experience that the Buddha preached at various times during the forty-five years he spent wandering through ancient India. Each turn, building on the principles expressed in the previous turn, offers a deeper and more insightful understanding of the nature of experience. The Four Noble Truths form the core of all Buddhist paths and traditions. Indeed, the Buddha considered them so important that he expounded them many times to a wide variety of audiences. Together with his later teachings, they have been passed down from generation to generation into modern times in a collection of texts called sutras. It is generally accepted that the sutras are records of conversations that actually took place between the Buddha and his disciples.

Book Overcoming Spiritual Materialism

These four noble truths are: the truth of suffering, the truth of the origin of suffering, the truth of the goal and the truth of the path. We will begin with the truth about suffering, and that means we must begin with the delusions of the monkey, with his madness.

We need to first see the reality of dukkha; this Sanskrit word means "suffering", "dissatisfaction", "pain". Dissatisfaction arises as a result of a special rotation of the mind: in its movement there seems to be neither beginning nor end. Thought processes continue uninterruptedly; there are thoughts about the past, thoughts about the future, thoughts about the present moment. This circumstance causes irritation. Thoughts are generated by dissatisfaction and are identical to it. This is dukkha, the constantly recurring feeling that we are still missing something, that there is some kind of incompleteness in our life, that something is not going quite right, not quite satisfactorily. Therefore, we always try to fill the gap, somehow correct the situation, find an additional piece of pleasure or security. The incessant action of struggle and preoccupation turns out to be very irritating and painful; In the end, we are irritated by the very fact that “we are us.”

So to understand the truth of dukkha actually means to understand the neurosis of the mind. We are pulled with enormous energy first in one direction and then in the other. Whether we eat or sleep, work or play, in everything we do, life contains dukkha, dissatisfaction and pain. If we experience some pleasure, we are afraid of losing it; we seek more and more pleasure or try to maintain what we have. If we suffer from pain, we want to get rid of it. We feel disappointed all the time. All our activities contain dissatisfaction.

Somehow it turns out that we arrange our lives in a special way that never allows us to have enough time to truly feel its taste. We are constantly busy, constantly waiting for the next moment; life itself seems to have the quality of constant desire. This is dukkha, the first noble truth. Understanding suffering and confronting it is the first step.

Acutely aware of our dissatisfaction, we begin to look for its cause, its source. When we examine our thoughts and actions, we find that we are constantly fighting to preserve and support ourselves. It becomes clear to us that struggle is the root of suffering. Therefore, we try to understand the process of struggle, i.e. understand the development and activity of the “I”. This is the second noble truth, the truth about the origin of suffering. As we established in the chapters on spiritual materialism, many people make the mistake of believing that since the root of suffering lies in our ego, the goal of spirituality must be to conquer and destroy this self. They struggle to free themselves from the heavy hand of the ego, but as we have previously discovered, such a struggle is nothing more than another expression of the ego. We move in circles, trying to improve ourselves through struggle, until we realize that this desire to improve is itself a problem. Flashes of insight come to us only when we stop struggling, when there is a clearing in our struggle, when we stop trying to get rid of thoughts, when we stop taking the side of pious, good thoughts against bad and impure ones, only when we allow ourselves to simply look at the nature of these thoughts.

We begin to understand that there is a certain healthy quality of wakefulness within us. In fact, this property manifests itself only in the absence of struggle. Thus we discover the third noble truth, the truth of purpose, of cessation of struggle. We only need to drop efforts and strengthen ourselves - and the state of awakening is evident. But we soon realize that simply “leaving everything as is” is only possible for short periods. We need a special discipline that will lead us to what we call calm, when we are able to “leave things as they are.” We must follow the spiritual path. In its journey from suffering to liberation, the ego wears out like an old shoe. Therefore, let us now consider this spiritual path, i.e. fourth noble truth. The practice of meditation is not an attempt to enter a special state of mind like trance; Nor is it an attempt to occupy oneself with some special object.

1. FIRST NOBLE TRUTH: DUKKHA

The First Noble Truth (Dukkha aryasaccha) is usually translated by almost all scholars as the "Noble Truth of Suffering", and is interpreted to mean that life, according to Buddhism, is nothing but suffering and pain. Both the translation and the interpretation are highly unsatisfactory and misleading. It is because of this limited, loose and convenient translation and its superficial interpretation that many have been misled into thinking that Buddhism is pessimistic.

First of all, Buddhism is neither pessimistic nor optimistic. If there is one at all, then he is realistic because he takes a realistic view of life and the world. He looks at everything objectively (yathabhutam). It doesn't deceptively lull you into living in a fool's paradise, but it doesn't frighten or torment you with all sorts of imaginary fears and sins. He tells you exactly and objectively what you are and what the world around you is, and shows you the path to perfect freedom, peace, tranquility and happiness.

One doctor can fatally exaggerate the disease and completely destroy hope. Another may ignorantly declare that there is no disease and no treatment is needed, thereby deceiving the patient with false consolation. You can call the first a pessimist and the second an optimist. Both are equally dangerous. But the third doctor correctly identifies the signs of the disease, understands its cause and nature, clearly sees that it can be cured, and boldly prescribes a course of treatment, thereby saving his patient. Buddha is like the last doctor. He is the wise and learned healer of the diseases of the world (Bhisakka or Bhaishajya Guru).

Indeed, the Pali word dukkha (or Sanskrit dukkha) in common usage means "suffering", "pain", "sorrow", "misfortune", as opposed to the word sukha, meaning "happiness", "comfort", "peace". But the term dukkha as the First Noble Truth, representing the Buddha's vision of life and the world, has a deeper philosophical meaning and covers broader meanings. It is accepted that the term dukkha in the First Noble Truth contains, quite obviously, the ordinary meaning of "suffering", but also includes such deeper ideas as "imperfection", "impermanence", "emptiness", "immateriality". Therefore, it is difficult to find one word to cover the entire concept of dukkha as the First Noble Truth, and therefore it is better to leave it untranslated rather than give an improper and incorrect idea of ​​it or, for the sake of convenience, translate it as “suffering” or “pain.”

Buddha does not deny happiness in life by saying that there is suffering in it. On the contrary, he recognizes different types of happiness, both material and spiritual, for laymen as well as for monks. In the Anguttara Nikaya, one of the five primary collections in Pali containing the Buddha's discourses, there is a list of happinesses (sukhani), such as the happiness of family life and the happiness of living as a hermit, the happiness of sensual pleasures and the happiness of renunciation, the happiness of attachment and the happiness of non-attachment, and bodily happiness and spiritual happiness, etc. But they are all included in dukkha. Even the purest spiritual states of dhyana (concentration or detachment, trance), achieved by the practice of higher contemplation, free even from the shadow of suffering in the ordinary sense of the word, states that can be described as happiness without any impurities, as well as the state of dhyana, which is free as from pleasant (sukha) and unpleasant (dukkha) sensations, and which is only pure equanimity and awareness - even these very high spiritual states are included in dukkha. In one of the suttas from the Majjhima Nikaya (also one of the five primary collections), after praising the spiritual happiness of these dhyanas, the Buddha says that they are “impermanent, dukkha and subject to change” (anicca dukkha viparinamadhamma). Note that the word dukkha is used directly. This is dukkha not because there is "suffering" in the usual sense of the word, but because "whatever is impermanent is dukkha" (yad aniccam tam dukkha).

Buddha was realistic and objective. He says, in relation to life and the enjoyment of sense pleasures, that three things should be clearly understood: 1) attraction or pleasure (assada), 2) bad consequences or danger or dissatisfaction (adinava), and 3) freedom or deliverance (nissarana). When you see a pleasant, charming and beautiful person, you like him or her, you are attracted to him, you enjoy seeing that person again and again, you derive pleasure and satisfaction from that person. This is pleasure (assada). This is confirmed by experience. But this pleasure is not constant, just as that person and all his (or her) attractiveness are not constant. When circumstances change, when you cannot see that person, you become sad, you may become reckless and unbalanced, you may even behave foolishly. This is the bad, unsatisfactory and dangerous side of the picture (adinava). This is also confirmed by experience. If you have no attachment to a person, if you are completely independent, then this is freedom, deliverance (nissarana). These three things are true of all the pleasures of life.

What is clear from this is that it is not a matter of pessimism or optimism, but that we must take into account the pleasures of life, as well as its pains and sorrows, and freedom from them, in order to understand life fully and objectively. Only then is true liberation possible.

Concerning this issue, the Buddha says: “O bhikkhus, if any ascetics or brahmanas do not understand correctly in this way, the enjoyment of sense pleasures as pleasure, dissatisfaction with them as dissatisfaction, deliverance from them as deliverance, then it is impossible that they themselves will probably fully understand the desire for sense pleasures. pleasures, or that they can instruct others in this, or that the one who follows their instructions will fully understand the desire for sensual pleasures. But, O bhikkhus, if any hermits or brahmins correctly understand in this way the enjoyment of sensual pleasures as pleasure, dissatisfaction with them as dissatisfaction, deliverance from them as deliverance, then it is possible that they themselves will fully understand the desire for sensual pleasures, and that they will be able to instruct others in this, and that those who follow their instructions will fully understand the desire for sensual pleasures.”

The concept of dukkha can be viewed from three angles: (1) dukkha as ordinary suffering (dukkha-dukkha), (2) dukkha as generated by change (viparinama-dukkha), and (3) dukkha as conditioned states (samkhara-dukkha).

All types of suffering in life, such as birth, old age, illness, death, association with unpleasant people and conditions, separation from loved ones and pleasant conditions, not getting what you want, grief, sadness, misfortune - all such types of physical and spiritual suffering, which are considered everywhere suffering or pain are included in dukkha as ordinary suffering (dukkha-dukkha).

Happy feelings, pleasant living conditions are not constant, not eternal. Sooner or later this will change. When it changes, it produces pain, suffering, unhappiness. These vicissitudes are included in dukkha as suffering generated by change (viparinama-dukkha).

The above two types of suffering (dukkha) are easy to understand. Nobody will dispute them. This side of the First Noble Truth is more widely known because it is easy to understand. These are ordinary experiences of everyday life.

But the third kind of dukkha as conditioned states (samkhara-dukkha) is the most important philosophical side of the First Noble Truth and requires some analytical clarification of what we consider as a “being,” as a “person,” as “I.”

What we call "being", "personality" or "I", according to Buddhist philosophy, is only a combination of constantly changing bodily and spiritual forces or energies, which can be divided into five aggregates or groups (panchakkhandha). The Buddha says: "In short, these five aggregates of attachment are dukkha." 3. Throughout he defines dukkha as the five aggregates: "O bhikkhus, what is dukkha? It should be said that these are the five aggregates of attachment." It should be clearly understood here that dukkha and the five aggregates are not two different things; the five aggregates are themselves dukkha. We will better understand this position when we have some idea of ​​the five aggregates that make up the so-called “being.” So what are these five aggregates?

Five Aggregates

The first is the totality of Substance (Rupakkhandha). Included in this term "Totality of Substance" are the ordinary Four Great Elements (chattari mahabhutani), namely, hardness, fluidity, heat and motion, as well as the Derivatives (upada-rupa) of the Four Great Elements. The term "Derivatives of the Four Great Elements" includes our five material sense organs, i.e., the faculties of the eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, and the corresponding objects of the external world, i.e. visible image, sound, smell, taste and tangible things, as well as some thoughts, concepts and ideas belonging to the realm of objects of the mind (dharmayatana). Thus the whole kingdom of matter, both internal and external, is included in the Totality of Matter.

The second is the Totality of Sensations (Vedanakkhandha). This includes all our sensations, pleasant, unpleasant or neutral, experienced through the contact of the bodily organs and mind with the external world. They are of six types: the sensations experienced by the eye with a visible image, the ear with sound, the nose with smell, the tongue with taste, the body with tangible objects, and the mind (which in Buddhist philosophy is the sixth sense) with mental objects, thoughts or ideas. . All our bodily and mental sensations are included in this totality.

The word "Mind" (manas) used in Buddhist philosophy may be helpful here. It should be clearly understood that mind is not spirit as opposed to matter. It should always be remembered that Buddhism does not recognize the opposition of spirit to matter, as is accepted by most other religious and philosophical systems. The mind is only a faculty or organ (indriya), like the eye or ear. It can be controlled and developed like any other faculty, and the Buddha speaks quite often about the value of managing and disciplining these six faculties. The difference between the eye and the mind, as faculties, is that the former senses the world of colors and visible images, while the latter senses the world of ideas, thoughts and mental objects. We experience different areas of the world through different senses. We can't hear colors, but we can see them. Thus, with the help of our five bodily senses - eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body - we experience only the world of visible images, sounds, smells, tastes and tangible objects. But they represent only part of the world, not the whole world. But what about thoughts and ideas? They are also part of the world. But they cannot be felt, cannot be perceived through the faculties of the eye, ear, tongue, nose or body. But they can still be perceived through another faculty, which is the mind. Thoughts and ideas are not independent of the world experienced through these five bodily sense faculties. In reality, they depend on and are conditioned by bodily experiences. Thus, a person born blind cannot have ideas about color, except through comparison with sounds or some other things experienced by him through other faculties. Thoughts and ideas are thus produced and conditioned by bodily experiences and perceived by the mind. Therefore, the mind (manas) is considered to be a sensory faculty or organ (indriya), like the eye or ear.

The third is the totality of Perceptions (Sannyakkhandha). Like sensations, perceptions are also of six kinds, in relation to the six internal faculties and the six corresponding external objects. Like sensations, they are generated through the contact of our six faculties with the outside world. It is perceptions that recognize objects, whether bodily or mental.

The fourth is the Set of Mental Formations 4 (Samkharakkhandha). This includes all intentional activity, both good and bad. This includes what is commonly known as karma (kamma). Here we should remember the Buddha's definition of karma: “O bhikkhu, this intention (cetana) I call karma. Having created an intention, one acts with body, speech and mind.” 5. Intention is “a mental creation, an activity of the mind. Its action is to direct the mind in good, bad and neutral matters." Just like sensations and perceptions, intention is of six types, associated with six internal faculties and six corresponding objects (both bodily and mental) of the external world. Sensations and perceptions are not intentional actions - such as attention (manasikara), will (chanda), determination (adhimokha), trust (saddha), concentration (samadhi), wisdom (panna), effort (viriya), passion (raga), aversion or hatred (patigha), ignorance (avijja), conceit (mana), self-image (sakkaya-ditthi), etc. - can produce karmic effects. There are 52 such activities of the mind that constitute the Totality of Mental Formations.

The fifth is the Aggregate of Consciousness (Vinnanakkhandha) 6. Consciousness is an effect or response, the basis of which is one of the six faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind), and the object is one of the six corresponding external phenomena (visible image , sound, smell, taste, tangible things and objects of the mind, i.e. thought or idea). For example, visual consciousness (cakkhu-vinnana) has the eye as its basis and the visible image as its object. Mental consciousness (manovinnana) has mind (manas) as its basis and a mental object, i.e. a thought or idea (dhamma) as its object. Consciousness is thus related to other faculties. So, like sensation, perception and intention, consciousness is also of six types, corresponding to six internal faculties and six corresponding external objects.

It should be clearly understood that consciousness does not recognize the object. This is just a kind of awareness - awareness of the presence of an object. When the eye comes into contact with a color, such as blue, visual consciousness arises, which is simply the awareness of the presence of color; but it does not recognize that it is blue. At this stage there is no recognition. This perception (the third Aggregate discussed above) recognizes that the color is blue. The term "visual consciousness" is a philosophical expression denoting the same concept as the ordinary word "vision". Seeing does not mean recognizing. The same is true for other types of consciousness.

It must be repeated here that according to Buddhist philosophy, there is no permanent and unchanging spirit, which can be considered as the “Self”, “Soul” or “I”, as opposed to matter. Particular emphasis must be placed at this point, since the incorrect opinion that consciousness is some kind of Self or Soul that lasts through life as a continuous entity has persisted from ancient times to the present day.

One of the Buddha's own disciples, named Sati, believed that the Master taught: "This is the same consciousness that migrates and wanders everywhere." Buddha asked him what he meant by "consciousness." Sati's answer was classic: "It is what expresses itself, what feels, what experiences the consequences of good and bad deeds here and there."

“Who are you, fool,” objected the Mentor, “did you hear me expound the teaching in this way? Didn’t I explain consciousness in different ways as arising from conditions.” The Buddha then went on to explain consciousness in detail: “Consciousness is named according to the conditions through which it arises: from the eye and visible images consciousness arises, and it is called visual consciousness; from the ear and sounds, consciousness arises, and it is called auditory consciousness; from the nose and consciousness arises from smells, and it is called olfactory consciousness; from the tongue and tastes consciousness arises, and it is called taste consciousness; from the body and tangible objects consciousness arises, and it is called tactile consciousness; from the mind and objects of the mind (thoughts and ideas) consciousness arises, and it is called mental consciousness."

The Buddha then explained this further with an example: "Fire is named according to the substance by which it burns. Fire can burn by wood and it is called wood fire, it can burn by straw and then it is called straw fire." "So consciousness is named according to the conditions through which it arises."

Dwelling on this point, Buddhaghosa, the great commentator, explains: "...the fire that burns due to the tree burns only when there is support, but dies in the very place when it (the support) is no longer there, because the conditions have changed, but ( fire) does not transfer to chips, etc., and does not become “fire-from-chips”, etc., similarly, consciousness arising due to the eye and visible images arises at the gates of the sense organ (i.e. eye), only under the condition of the eye, visible images, light and attention, but it stops there and then when they (conditions) no longer exist, since the conditions have changed, but (consciousness) does not move to the ear, etc., and does not become auditory consciousness and so on..."

The Buddha declared in unequivocal terms that consciousness is dependent on matter, sensation, perception and mental formations, and that it cannot exist independently of them. He says:

"Consciousness can exist with matter as a means (rupupayam), matter as an object (rupurammanam), matter as support (rupapatittham), and in seeking pleasure it can grow, increase and develop; or consciousness can exist with sensation as a means... .or perception as a means... or mental formations... as a means, mental formations as an object, mental formations as a support, and in seeking pleasure it can grow, increase and develop.

If there were a person who said: “I will show the coming, going, arising, disappearing, growth, increase or development of consciousness apart from matter, sensation, perception and mental formations, then he would be talking about something that does not exist.” .

Very briefly, these are the five Aggregates. What we call "being" or "person" is merely a convenient name or label given to the combination of these five aggregates. They are all impermanent, they are all constantly changing. "Everything that is impermanent is dukkha (Yad aniccam tam dukkha). This is the true meaning of the Buddha's words: "In short, these five aggregates of attachment are dukkha." They are not the same for two successive moments. Here A is not equal to A. They remain in a stream of instantaneous arising and disappearing.

“O brahmanas, this is like a mountain river flowing quickly and far, taking everything with it; there is not a moment, not a moment when it does not flow, but it continues to flow and continues. So, brahmanas, human life is like a river.” 7. As the Buddha told Rathapala: “The world is in flux and impermanent.”

One disappears, causing the appearance of another in sequences of cause and effect. There is no immutable essence in them. Behind them there is nothing that can be called a permanent Self (Atman), a personality, or anything that can really be called "I". Everyone will agree that neither matter, nor sensation, nor perception, nor any activity of the mind, nor consciousness, can really be called "I" 8. But when these five bodily and mental aggregates, which are interdependent, act together as bodily- spiritual structure 9, we have the idea of ​​"I". But this is only a false idea, a mental formation, only one of the 52 mental formations from the fourth Aggregate that we have just discussed, namely, this idea of ​​the self, the idea of ​​the Self (sakkaya-ditthi).

Together these five Aggregates, what we usually call "being", are themselves dukkha (samkhara-dukkha). There is no other "being" or "I" behind these five aggregates that experiences dukkha.

As Buddhaghosa says:

“Obvious suffering exists, but the sufferer cannot be found;

There are things to do, but the one who does it cannot be found.”

There is no motionless mover behind the movement. It's just movement. It is not true to say that life moves, but life itself is movement. Life and movement are not two different things. In other words, there is no thinker behind the thought. The thought itself is the thinker. Here we cannot fail to notice how diametrically opposed the Buddhist view is to Descartes' "cohito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).

Now we can raise the question of whether life has a beginning. According to the teachings of the Buddha, the beginning of the lifestream of living beings cannot be conceived. This answer may surprise someone who believes in the creation of life by God. But if you asked him: “What is the beginning of God?”, he would answer without hesitation: “God has no beginning,” without being surprised at his own answer. The Buddha says: “O bhikkhu, this continuous cycle (samsara) has no visible end, and the originally wandering and running beings, overwhelmed by ignorance (avijja), constrained by the shackles of craving (desire, tanha), cannot be seen.” And further, turning to ignorance, which is the main cause of the continuity of life, the Buddha says: “Initially ignorance cannot be seen in such a way as to claim that there was no ignorance up to such and such a point.” It is also impossible to say that there was no life before a certain point.

This, in a nutshell, is the meaning of the Noble Truth of Dukkha. It is extremely important to clearly understand this First Noble Truth because, as the Buddha says, “he who sees dukkha also sees the arising of dukkha, also sees the cessation of dukkha, and also sees the path leading to the cessation of dukkha.”10

This does not make the life of a Buddhist sad and mournful, as some people incorrectly imagine. On the contrary, a true Buddhist is the happiest of beings. He has no fears or worries. He is always calm and unperturbed, he cannot be upset or confused by changes or disasters, because he sees things as they are. Buddha was never sad or despondent. He was described by his contemporaries as "always smiling" (mihitapubbamgama). In Buddhist painting and sculpture, the Buddha is always represented with a happy, serene, contented and compassionate expression. There is never a trace of suffering, torment or pain visible 11. Buddhist art and architecture, Buddhist temples never give the impression of dull or sad, but create an atmosphere of calm and serene joy.

Although there is suffering in life, a Buddhist should not become depressed, angry or impatient because of it. One of the fundamental evils in life, according to the Buddha, is “aversion” or hatred. Disgust (pratigha) is explained as "anger towards living beings, towards suffering and things pertaining to suffering." Its effect is to create the basis for unhappy states and bad behavior. So it is wrong to be impatient with suffering. Impatience or anger towards suffering will not eliminate it. On the contrary, it adds new worries, and also aggravates and aggravates already unpleasant circumstances. What is needed is not anger or impatience, but understanding the issue of suffering, how it arises and how to get rid of it, and then working accordingly with patience, wisdom, determination and diligence.

There are two ancient Buddhist books called Theragatha and Therigatha, which are full of joyful exclamations of the Buddha's disciples, men and women who found peace and happiness in life through his teachings. The ruler of Kosala once told the Buddha that unlike disciples from other religious systems who looked rough, haggard, emaciated, pale, unattractive, his disciples were “joyful and cheerful (hattha-pahattha), ecstatic and jubilant (udaggudagga), enjoying spiritual life (aohiratarupa), with satisfied senses (pinitindriya), free from anxiety (arrosukka), serene (pannaloma), peaceful (paradavutta) and living with the “mind of a gazelle” (i.e. with a light heart, migabhutena cetasa).” The ruler added that he believed that this healthy disposition was due to the fact that “these venerable ones have definitely comprehended the great and excellent teaching of the Blessed One.”

Buddhism is quite the opposite of the sad, mournful, repentant and despondent mentality that is considered an obstacle to the realization of Truth. It is interesting to remember here that joy (piti) is one of the seven “Ingredients of Enlightenment,” the essential qualities developed for the realization of Nirvana.

2. SECOND NOBLE TRUTH: SAMUDAYA
(The Emergence of Dukkha)

The Second Noble Truth is the truth about the arising or origin of dukkha (Dukkhasamudaya-arsacca). The most publicly available and well-known definition of the Second Truth, which can be found in numerous places in primary sources, is this:

“It is craving (passionate desire, tanha) that produces re-existence and re-becoming (ponobhavika), and that is bound with passionate greed (nandiragasahagata), and that finds new pleasures now and everywhere (tatratatrabhinadini), namely, (1) craving sense pleasures (kamatanha), (2) the thirst for existence and becoming (bhava-tanha), and (3) the thirst for non-existence (self-destruction, vibhava-tanha)."

It is this “thirst”, desire, greed, passion, manifesting itself in different ways, that gives rise to all types of suffering of living beings and their incessant manifestation. But it should not be considered the first cause, since, according to Buddhism, everything is relative and interdependent. Even this "thirst", tanha, considered the cause or source of dukkha, in its arising (samudaya) depends on something else, which is sensation (vedana) 1, and sensation arises depending on contact (phassa), and so on and and so on continues the cycle known as Conditioned Generation (Paticca-samuppada), which we will discuss later.

So tanha, "thirst" is not the first or only cause of dukkha. But it is the most tangible and immediate cause, the most important and all-pervading. 2 Therefore in some places of the Pali sources the definition includes other obscurations and defilements (kilesa, sasava dhamma), in addition to tanha, "thirst", which is always given first place. In view of the inevitable limitation of the space of our discussion, it will suffice to remember that this "thirst" has for its center a false idea of ​​self, arising from ignorance.

The term "lust" here includes not only desire and attachment for sense pleasures, wealth and power, but also desire and attachment for ideas and ideals, views, opinions, theories, concepts and beliefs (dhamma-tanha). According to the Buddha's reasoning, all the disputes and worries in the world, from small personal family quarrels to great wars between countries and peoples, arise from this selfish "thirst." From this point of view, all economic, political and social difficulties are rooted in this selfish "thirst." Great statesmen who try to settle international disputes and speak of war and peace only in economic and political terms skim the surface and never penetrate deeply into the real root of the issue. As the Buddha told Rattapala: “The world needs and desires, and is enslaved by “thirst” (tanhadaso).”

Everyone will agree that all the troubles in the world are generated by selfish desire. This is not difficult to understand. But how this desire, "thirst" can produce re-existence and re-becoming (ponobhavika) is not an easy question to grasp. This is where we must discuss the deeper side of the Second Noble Truth. Here we need to have some understanding of the theory of karma and rebirth.

There are four “Foods” (ahara) in the sense of “cause” or “condition” necessary for the existence and stay of beings: (1) ordinary material food (kabalinkarahara), (2) contact of our senses (including the mind) with the external world ( phassahara), (3) consciousness (vinnyanahara), and (4) mental intention or will (manosanchetanahara).

Of these four, the last mentioned "mental intention" is the will to live, to exist, to re-exist, to last, to become again and again 3. It creates the root of existence and permanence, striving forward through good and bad actions (kusalakusalakamma). This is the same as "Intention" (cetana) 4. We saw earlier that intention is karma, as defined by the Buddha himself. Regarding the “mental intention” just mentioned above, the Buddha says: “When you understand the “food” of mental intention, you understand the three types of “thirst” (tanha).” 5 So the terms “thirst”, “intention”, “mental intention” and "karma" all mean the same thing: they mean the desire, the will to be, to exist, to re-exist, to become again and again, to grow again and again, to accumulate again and again more and more. This is the cause of the emergence of dukkha, which is located in the Aggregate of Mental Formations, one of the Five Aggregates that make up the being.

This is one of the most important and significant passages in the teachings of the Buddha. We must, therefore, clearly note and remember that the cause, the germ of the emergence of dukkha, is in dukkha itself, and not outside it. This is what is implied by the well-known expression often found in the Pali primary sources: Yam kinci samudayadhammam sabbam tam nirodhadhammam - “Everything that has the nature of origination, the nature of coming into being, also carries within itself the nature, the germ of its own cessation.” This question will be raised again in the discussion of the Third Noble Truth, Nirodha.

So, the Pali word kamma or the Sanskrit word karma (from the root kri - to do) literally means "action", "doing". But in the Buddhist theory of karma it has a special meaning: it means only "intentional action" and not all action. It also does not mean the consequences of karma, as many people loosely and incorrectly use it. In Buddhist terminology, karma never refers to its consequences; its consequences are known as the "fruit" or "outcome" of karma (kamma-phala or kamma-vipaka).

An intention can be relatively good or bad, just as a desire can be relatively good or bad. So karma can be good or bad relatively. Good karma (kusala) produces good consequences and bad karma (akusala) produces bad consequences. "Craving", intention, karma, whether good or bad, have as their consequence one force: the power to continue - to continue in a good or bad direction. Whether it is good or bad, it is relative and is in a continuous cycle (samsara). The Arahant, although he acts, does not accumulate karma, since he is free from the false idea of ​​himself, from the “thirst” for incessant becoming, free from all other obscurations and defilements (kilesa, sasava dhamma). There is no rebirth for him.

The theory of karma should not be confused with so-called "moral justice" or "reward and punishment." The idea of ​​moral justice or reward and punishment arises from the false idea of ​​a supreme being, God, who is the lawgiver, the dispenser of justice, and the decider of what is right and what is wrong. The term "justice" is ambiguous and dangerous, and in its name more harm has been done to humanity than good. The theory of karma is a theory of cause and effect, action and reaction; it is a natural law and has nothing to do with the idea of ​​reward and punishment. Every intentional action has its consequences and its outcome. If a good deed has good consequences, and a bad deed has bad consequences, then this is not justice, reward or punishment assigned by someone or some force passing judgment on your actions, but the property of the own nature of these deeds, their own law. This is not difficult to understand. But what is difficult to understand is that according to the theory of karma, the consequences of an intentional action can continue to manifest themselves even in life after death. Here we must clarify what death is according to Buddhism.

We have seen earlier that a being is nothing more than a combination of bodily and mental forces and energies. What we call death is the complete cessation of the activities of the physical body. Do all these forces and energies stop when the body ceases to function? Buddhism says: "No." Will, intention, desire, thirst to exist, to last, to become again and again - this is an amazing force that moves whole lives, whole existences, which even moves the whole world. This is the greatest power, the greatest energy in the world. According to Buddhism, this power does not stop with the cessation of the body's activities, which is death; but it continues to manifest itself in another form, producing a re-existence called rebirth.

Now another question arises: if there is no permanent and unchanging entity like the Self, the Self, or the Soul (Atman), what is it that can re-exist or be reborn after death? Before we move on to life after death, let's look at what life is and how it lasts now. What is called life, as we so often repeat, is a combination of the Five Aggregates, a combination of bodily and mental forces. They are constantly changing; they do not remain the same for two consecutive moments. Every moment they are born and die. “While Aggregates arise, disintegrate and die, O bhikkhus, in every moment you are born, disintegrate and die.” 6. So even now, during this life, in every moment we are born and die, but we continue to be. If we can understand that in this life we ​​can continue to be without a permanent, unchanging entity, like the Soul or Self, why cannot we understand that these forces can themselves continue without the Soul or Self behind them, after the cessation of the activities of the body ?

When this physical body is no longer able to act, the forces do not die with it, but continue to take on some other image or form, which we call another life. In a child all the bodily, mental and spiritual faculties are tender and weak, but have within them the power to produce a fully matured man. The bodily and spiritual energies that make up the so-called being have within themselves the ability to take on a new form, gradually grow and gain full strength.

Since there is no permanent, unchanging entity, nothing passes from one moment to the next. Therefore, it is quite obvious that nothing permanent or unchangeable can pass or migrate from one life to the next. It is a sequence that goes on continuously but changes every moment. This sequence, in truth, is nothing more than movement. It is like a flame that burns all night: it is neither the same flame nor another. The child grows into a sixty-year-old man. Of course, a sixty-year-old person is not the same as a child sixty years ago, but he is not a different person either. Similarly, a person who dies here and is reborn somewhere is neither the same person nor another (na cha so na cha anno). This is the duration of the same sequence. The difference between death and birth is only a moment of thought: the last moment of thought in this life determines the first moment of thought in the so-called next life, which, in reality, is a continuation of the same sequence. Also during this life, one moment of thought determines the next moment of thought. Therefore, from the point of view of Buddhism, the question of life after death is not a great mystery, and a Buddhist never worries about it. As long as there is a “thirst” to be and become, the continuous cycle (samsara) continues. He can stop only when his driving force, this "thirst" is cut off through wisdom, which sees Reality, Truth, Nirvana.

3. THIRD NOBLE TRUTH: NIRODHA
(Cessation of Dukkha)

The Third Noble Truth is the Truth of salvation, deliverance, freedom from suffering, from the permanence of dukkha (Dukkhanirodhaaryasachcha), which is Nibbana, (more commonly known in Sanskrit form Nirvana).

To completely eliminate dukkha, one must eliminate the main root of dukkha, "thirst" (tanha), as we saw earlier. Therefore, Nirvana is also known by the term Tanhakkaya - "Extinction of Thirst".

Now you ask: But what is Nirvana? Whole volumes have been written in response to this completely natural and simple question; they rather further confused than clarified the issue. The only reasonable answer that can be given to this question is that it cannot be fully and satisfactorily answered in words because human language is too poor to express the real nature of the Supreme Truth or Ultimate Reality which is Nirvana. Language is created and used by masses of people to express the things and thoughts experienced by their senses and mind. A supermundane experience like the Supreme Truth is not. Therefore there can be no words to express this experience, just as there are no words in the fish vocabulary to express the nature of solid earth. The turtle told his friend the fish that she (the turtle) had just returned to the lake after walking on land. “Of course,” said the fish, “you mean swimming.” The turtle tried to explain that you cannot swim on the ground, that it is hard and that people walk on it. But the fish insisted that nothing like that could happen, that it had to be liquid, like its lake, with waves, and that you had to be able to dive and swim there.

Words are signs representing known things and thoughts to us; and these signs do not and cannot convey the true nature of even ordinary things. Language is considered deceptive and misleading in the matter of understanding the Truth. Thus, the Lankavatara Sutra says that ignorant people get stuck in words, like an elephant in mud.

However, we cannot do without words. But if Nirvana is to be expressed and explained in positive terms, then we are apt to immediately seize upon the idea associated with these terms, although it may be quite the opposite of what is meant. Therefore it is usually expressed in negative terms 1 - perhaps this is a less dangerous way. Thus, it is often described by such negative terms as Tanhakkaya - “Extinction of Thirst”, Asamkhata - “Uncompounded”, “Unconditioned”, Viraga - “Lack of desire”, Nirodha - “Cessation”, Nibbana - “Extinction”, “Attenuation”.

Let's look at a few definitions and descriptions of Nirvana found in Pali sources:

“This is the complete cessation of that very “thirst” (tanha), abandonment of it, renunciation of it, deliverance from it, separation from it” 2.

"Pacification of all conditioned things, renunciation of all obscurations, extinction of 'craving', non-attachment, cessation, Nibbana."

"O bhikkhu, what is the Supreme (Asamkhata, the Unconditioned)? This, O bhikkhu, is the extinction of desire (ragakkhayo), the extinction of hatred (dosakkhayo), the extinction of delusion (mohakkhayo). This, O bhikkhu, is called the supreme."

"O Radha, the extinction of 'thirst' (Tanhakkayo) is Nibbana."

“O bhikkhu, among all things conditioned and unconditioned, non-attachment (viraga) is the highest. It is freedom from conceit, the destruction of craving, the eradication of attachment, the suppression of incessancy, the extinction of “thirst” (tanha), non-attachment, cessation, Nibbana.”

The answer of the senior disciple of Buddha Sariputta to the direct question posed by Parivrajaka "What is Nibbana?" is identical to the Buddha's definition of Asamkhata (above): "The extinction of desire, the extinction of hatred, the extinction of delusion."

"The abandonment and annihilation of desire and craving of these Five Aggregates of Attachment: this is the cessation of dukkha" 4.

“The cessation of Continuity and becoming (Bhavanirodha) is Nibbana” 5.

“O bhikkhu, there is the unborn, the unmade, the unconditioned. If there were not the unborn, the unmade, the unconditioned, there would be no salvation for the born, the become, the conditioned. Since there is the unborn, the unbecome, the unconditioned, there is salvation for the born, the become, the conditioned.” .

“Here the four elements of hardness, fluidity, heat and movement do not find support; together the ideas of length and width, of subtle and gross, of good and evil, of name and image are destroyed; there is neither this world nor another, there is no departure, coming or staying, no death, no birth, no sense objects."

Since Nirvana is thus expressed in negative terms, many have received the misconception that it is something negative and expresses self-destruction. Nirvana is definitely not the destruction of the self, since there is no self to destroy. If there is anything at all, it is the destruction of delusion, the false idea of ​​self.

It is not true to say that Nirvana is negative or positive. The ideas of "negative" and "positive" are relative and exist in the realm of duality. These terms do not apply to Nirvana, the Supreme Truth which is beyond duality and relativity.

A negative word does not necessarily show a negative state. In Sanskrit and Pali, health is denoted by the word arogya, a negative term literally meaning "absence of disease." But arogya (health) is not a negative state. The word "Immortal" (or its Sanskrit equivalent Amrita, or Pali Amata), also a synonym for Nirvana, is negative, but does not denote a negative state. Negation of negative values ​​is not negative. One of the famous synonyms of Nirvana is “Freedom” (Pali Mutti, Sans. Mukti). No one would say that freedom is negative. But even freedom has a negative side: freedom is always freedom from something obstructive, bad, negative. But freedom is not negative. Thus, Nirvana, Mutti or Vimutti, the Supreme Freedom is freedom from everything bad, freedom from greed, hatred and ignorance, freedom from all concepts of duality, relativity, time and space.

We can get some idea of ​​Nirvana as the Supreme Truth from the Dhatuvibhanga Sutta (No. 140) of the Majjhimanikaya. This extremely important reasoning was given by the Buddha to the already mentioned Pukkusati, whom the Master considered wise and serious, in the silence of the night under the cover of the pottery.

The essence of the relevant part of the sutta is as follows: “Man consists of six elements: solidity, fluidity, heat, movement, space and consciousness. When he considers them, he discovers that none of them is “mine”, “me” or “my self.” "He understands how consciousness arises, how pleasant, unpleasant and indifferent sensations arise and disappear. Through this knowledge, his mind becomes detached. He then finds in himself pure steadfastness (upekkha), which he can direct to achieve any high spiritual state, and knows that this pure steadfastness will last for a long time, but then he thinks:

If I concentrate this pure steadfastness on the Domain of Infinite Space and develop a mind in accordance with it, then this will be mental creation (samkhatam) 6. If I concentrate this Pure steadfastness on the Domain of Infinite Consciousness... on the Domain of Nothing... or on the Domain of nothing Perception or Non-Perception and develop a mind in accordance with it, then this will be mental creation." Then he neither creates mentally, nor desires incessancy and becoming (bhava) or destruction (vibhava) 7, he does not cling to anything in the world, in there is no agitation in him; because there is no agitation in him, he is completely at peace within himself (completely extinguished within - pacchattan yeva parinibbayati). And he knows: “Birth is over, pure life has been lived, what has to be done has been done, nothing is left undone.” 8.

Now, when he experiences pleasant, unpleasant or indifferent sensations, he knows that it is impermanent, that it does not constrain him, that it is not experienced with passion. Whatever the sensation, he experiences it without becoming attached to it (visamyutto). He knows that all these sensations will calm down with the disintegration of the body, just as a flame disappears when the oil and wick run out.

“Therefore, O bhikkhu, whoever is endowed with this is endowed with the highest wisdom, for the knowledge of the extinction of all dukkha is the highest noble wisdom.”

"This attainment of his, found in the Truth, is unshakable. O bhikkhu, that which is not reality (mosadhamma) is false; that which is reality (amosadhamma), Nibbana, is the Truth (Saccha). Therefore, O bhikkhu, who is endowed thereby, endowed with the Supreme Truth. For the Supreme Noble Truth (paramam arsaccham) is Nibbana, which is Reality."

The Buddha explicitly uses the term Truth instead of Nibbana throughout: “I will teach you the Truth and the Path leading to the Truth.” Here Truth definitely means Nirvana.

So what is the Supreme Truth? According to Buddhism, the Supreme Truth is that there is nothing absolute in the world, that everything is relative, conditioned and impermanent, and that there is no unchanging, eternal, finite entity like the Self, Soul or Atman, whether within or without. This is the Supreme Truth. Truth is never negative, although there is a popular expression "negative truth." Comprehension of this Truth, i.e., seeing everything as it is (yathabhutam) without delusion or ignorance (avijja) 9, is the extinction of the hungry “thirst” (Tanhakkhaya) and the cessation (Nirodha) of dukkha, which is Nirvana. Here it is interesting and useful to remember the Mahayana view of Nirvana as not different from Samsara 10. The same thing is Samsara or Nirvana according to how you look at it - subjectively or objectively. This Mahayana view appears to have been developed from the ideas of the Pali Theravada sources to which we have just referred in our brief discussion.

It is wrong to think that Nirvana is the natural result of the extinction of craving. Nirvana is neither a consequence nor a result of anything. If it were an effect, it would be an effect produced by some cause. It would be samkhata, "produced" and "conditioned." Nirvana is neither cause nor effect. It is beyond cause and effect. Truth is neither a result nor a consequence. It is not generated like mystical, spiritual, mental states such as dhyana or samadhi. THE TRUTH IS. NIRVANA IS. The only thing you can do is to see it, to comprehend it. There is a path leading to the realization of Nirvana. But Nirvana is not the result of this path. 11. The path may lead you to a mountain, but the mountain is neither the result nor the consequence of the path. You can see light, but light is not the result of your vision.

People often ask: What after Nirvana? This question cannot arise because Nirvana is the Ultimate Truth. If she is the Ultimate, then nothing can happen after her. If there is anything after Nirvana, then it is this, and not Nirvana, that will be the Ultimate Truth. A monk named Radha put this question to the Buddha in another way: "For what purpose (or end) is Nirvana?" This question suggests something after Nirvana, stating some purpose or end for it. Therefore, the Buddha replied: “O Radha, this question does not grasp its limits (i.e., past the goal). For one living a holy life, Nirvana is the final immersion (into the Supreme Truth) - the goal, the final limit.”

Some well-known, carelessly constructed expressions like "Buddha entered into Nirvana or Parinirvana after his death" have created the basis for many far-fetched speculations about Nirvana. 12 When you hear the statement that "Buddha entered into Nirvana or Parinirvana," you believe Nirvana to be a place, a kingdom or a position where there is some kind of existence, and try to imagine it in terms of the meanings of the word "existence" as far as you know. This well-known expression “entered Nirvana” has no correspondence in the original sources. There is no such thing as "entering Nirvana after death." There is a word parinibbbuto used to denote the death of a Buddha or an Arahant who realized Nirvana, but it does not mean "entry into Nirvana." Parinibbuto simply means "completely quiescent", "completely extinguished", "completely extinguished", since there is no re-existence for a Buddha or Arahant after his death.

Now another question arises: What happens to the Buddha or Arahant after his death, parinirvana? This refers to the section of unanswered questions (avyakata). Even when the Buddha spoke about this, he pointed out that there are no words in our vocabulary that could express what happens to the Arahant after his death. In reply to the parivrajaka named Vaccha, the Buddha said that terms like "born" or "unborn" are not applicable to the case of the Arahant, since that is matter, sensation, perception, mental formations, consciousness - with which terms like "begotten" or "unborn", is completely destroyed and uprooted, never to arise again after his death.

The Arahant after his death is often compared to a fire that goes out when the fuel runs out, or to the flame of a lamp that goes out when the wick and oil run out. Here it should be understood clearly and distinctly, without any delusion, that what is compared to an extinguished flame or fire is not Nirvana, but a “being” consisting of the Five Aggregates that has realized Nirvana. Emphasis must be placed on this point because many people, even some great scientists, have misunderstood and interpreted this comparison as referring to Nirvana. Nirvana is never compared to a fire or a lamp going out.

There is another common question: “If there is no Self, no Atman, then who realizes Nirvana?” Before moving on to Nirvana, let's ask the question: "Who is thinking now if not Me?" We saw earlier that what thinks is thought, that behind the thought there is no thinker. Likewise, this is wisdom (pañña), comprehension, which is that which comprehends, which realizes. There is no other “I” behind comprehension, realization. In discussing the source of dukkha, we saw that whatever it is - a being, a thing or a system - if it has the nature of origination, then it carries within itself the nature, the germ of its cessation, its destruction. So dukkha, the continuous cycle of samsara, has the nature of arising, and therefore it must also have the nature of cessation, disappearance. Dukkha arises due to "thirst" (tanha) and ceases due to wisdom (pañña). Both "thirst" and wisdom are within the Five Aggregates, as we saw earlier 13.

So, the germ of their emergence, as well as their cessation, is within the Five Aggregates. This is the true meaning of the famous saying of the Buddha: “Within this very fathom-long sentient body, I proclaim peace, the arising of the world, the cessation of the world, and the path leading to the cessation of the world.” This means that all Four Noble Truths are within the Five Aggregates, i.e., within ourselves. (Here the word "world" (loka) is used instead of dukkha.) This also means that there is no external force that causes the arising and cessation of dukkha.

When wisdom is developed and cultivated in accordance with the Fourth Noble Truth (next in discussion), it sees the mystery of life, reality as it is. When the secret is revealed, when the Truth is seen, all the forces that feverishly in obscurity produce the permanence of samsara become calm and are no longer capable of producing karmic formations, since there is no more obscuration, there is no longer a “thirst” for incessantity. It is similar to a mental illness that is cured when the patient discovers and sees the cause or mystery of his illness.

In almost all religions, the summum bonum (the highest good) can only be achieved after death. But Nirvana can be comprehended and realized already in this life; you don't have to wait until you die to "achieve" it.

He who has comprehended the Truth and realized Nirvana is the happiest being in the world. He is free from all the “complexes” and obsessions, worries and anxieties that torment others. His spiritual health is perfect. He does not regret the past and does not reflect on the future. He lives entirely in the present. Therefore, he enjoys things and rejoices in them in the purest sense, without any self-reflection. He is joyful, enthusiastic, enjoying pure life, his senses are satisfied, he is free from worry, peaceful and serene. Because he is free from personal desires, hatred, ignorance, vanity, pride and all such "obscurations", he is pure and affectionate, full of universal love, compassion, kindness, empathy, understanding and tolerance. His service to others is the purest, for he has no thoughts of himself. He does not acquire anything, does not accumulate anything, even if it is something spiritual, since he is free from the delusion of the Self and the “thirst” of becoming.

Nirvana is beyond all concepts of duality and relativity. Therefore, it is above our ideas about good and evil, right and wrong, existence and non-existence. Even the word "happiness" used to describe Nirvana has a completely different meaning here. Sariputta once said: “O friend, Nirvana is happiness! Nirvana is happiness!” Then Udayi asked: “But, friend Sariputta, how can this be happiness if there is no sensation?” Sariputta's answer was highly philosophical and beyond ordinary understanding: "The fact that there is no sensation is in itself happiness."

Nirvana is beyond logic and reasoning (atakkavacara). No matter how much we engage in, often as an empty intellectual pastime, high-spirited debates, discussing Nirvana or Ultimate Truth or Reality, we will never understand it in this way. A kindergarten child should not argue about the theory of relativity. But if he instead studies patiently and diligently, one day he may understand it. Nirvana “is realized, realized by the wise in themselves” (pacchattam veditabbo vinnyuhi). If we follow the Path patiently and diligently, seriously educate and purify ourselves, achieve the necessary spiritual development, we can one day realize it, comprehend it in ourselves, without burdening ourselves with puzzles and pompous words.

Therefore, let us now turn to the Path leading to the realization, the realization of Nirvana.

4. FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH: MAGGA
(Path)

The Fourth Noble Truth is the truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of Dukkha (dukkhanirodhagaminipatipada-aryasachca). This is known as the "Middle Way" because it avoids two extremes: one extreme is the search for happiness in sensual pleasures, "low, common, meaningless, ungrateful"; and the other is the search for happiness through self-mortification through various types of asceticism, “painful, worthless, meaningless.” Having first experienced these two extremes on his own, finding them useless, the Buddha, through personal experience, discovered the Middle Way, “giving vision and knowledge leading to Peace, Insight, Enlightenment, Nirvana.” This Middle Path is usually referred to as the Noble Eightfold Path, since it consists of eight divisions or orders: namely,

1. Right Understanding (Samma ditthi),

2. Right Thought (Samma Sankappa),

3. Right Speech (Samma vaca),

4. Right Action (Samma Kammanta),

5. Right Lifestyle (Samma ajiva),

6. Right Effort (Samma Vayama),

7. Right Mindfulness (Samma sati),

8. Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi).

Almost all of the Buddha's teachings, to which he devoted 45 years of his life, deal in one way or another with this Path. He explained it in different ways and in different words to different people, according to their stage of development and their ability to understand and follow it. The essence of the many thousands of instructions that are scattered throughout the Buddhist Scriptures is found in the Noble Eightfold Path.

There is no need to think that the eight divisions or grades of the Path must be followed and practiced one after another in the order they are listed in the usual list above. But they must be developed more or less simultaneously and as far as possible, in accordance with the abilities of each individual. They are all interconnected, and each helps nurture the others.

These eight components are aimed at promoting and perfecting the three pillars of Buddhist education and training, namely: (a) Moral Conduct (Strength), (b) Subjugation of the Mind (Samadhi) and (c) Wisdom (Pañña). Therefore, in order to harmonize and better understand the eight divisions of the Path, it will be more useful if we relate and explain them according to these three headings.

Moral behavior (Sila) is built on the broad concept of universal love and compassion for all living beings, on which the Buddha's teachings are based. Unfortunately, many researchers forget this great ideal of the Buddha's teaching and plunge into dry philosophical and metaphysical wanderings when they talk and write about Buddhism. The Buddha gave his teaching “for the benefit of many, for the happiness of many, out of compassion for the world” (bahujanahitaya bahujanasukhaya lokanukampaya).

According to Buddhism, there are two qualities that a person should equally develop in order to be perfect: compassion (karuna) on the one hand, and wisdom (panna) on the other. Compassion here means love, mercy, kindness, tolerance and similar noble qualities of the emotional side, qualities of the heart, while wisdom represents the intellectual side, qualities of the mind. If a person develops only the emotional, neglecting the intellectual, he may become a good-hearted fool; whereas the development of only the intellectual side, neglecting the emotional, turns a person into a hard-hearted intellect, insensitive to others. Therefore, to be perfect, it is necessary to develop both equally. This is the goal of the Buddhist way of life: in it wisdom and compassion are inseparably linked together, as we will see later.

So, Moral Conduct (Strength), based on love and compassion, includes the three components of the Noble Eightfold Path, namely: Right Speech, Right Action and Right Lifestyle (list numbers: 3, 4, 5).

Right Speech means abstaining (1) from lying, (2) from slander, slander and speech likely to cause hatred, disunity and discord among individuals or groups of people, (3) from harsh, rude, impolite, malicious and offensive speech, and (4) from empty, stupid, meaningless chatter and gossip. When a person abstains from these kinds of wrong and harmful speech, he should naturally speak the truth, should use words that are friendly and benevolent, pleasant and gentle, meaningful and useful. He should not speak carelessly: speech should be appropriate to the place and time. If you cannot say anything useful, then you should maintain “noble silence.”

Right Action aims to promote moral, honorable and peaceful behavior. It exhorts us to refrain from destroying life, from stealing, from dishonest relationships, from illicit sexual intercourse, and to help others to lead a peaceful and dignified life correctly.

Right Livelihood means the need to abstain from making a living through activities that harm others, such as dealing in deadly weapons, intoxicants, poisons, killing animals, fraud, etc., and the need to make a living through activities that are honest, impeccable and does not harm others. Here it can be clearly seen that Buddhism is firmly opposed to all types of war, declaring the trade in deadly weapons to be evil and an unrighteous means of subsistence.

These three components of the Eightfold Path (Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood) constitute Moral Conduct. It should be understood that Buddhist ethical and moral behavior is aimed at promoting a happy and harmonious life for both the individual and society. This moral behavior is considered the necessary foundation for all higher spiritual achievements. No spiritual development is possible without this moral foundation.

Next comes Subjugation of the Mind, which includes the other three limbs of the Eightfold Path, namely Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. (Numbers 6, 7, 8 on the list).

Right Effort is the energetic will (1) to prevent the occurrence of unwholesome and harmful states of mind, and (2) to get rid of such unwholesome and harmful states of mind that have already arisen in a person, and also (3) to produce, cause the emergence of those good and beneficial states of mind that have not yet arisen, and (4) develop and bring to perfection the good and useful states of mind already present in a person.

Right Mindfulness is being carefully aware of, being attentive to (1) the activities of the body (kaya), (2) sensations or feelings (vedana), and (3) the activities of the mind (citta) and (4) ideas, thoughts, concepts and things (dhamma).

The practice of focusing on breathing (anapanasati) is one of the well-known body-related exercises for developing the mind. There are several other ways to develop mindfulness in relation to the body - as ways of contemplation.

In relation to feelings and sensations, one should be clearly aware of all types of feelings and sensations - pleasant, unpleasant and uncertain, how they arise and disappear within.

Regarding the activities of the mind, one should be aware of whether the mind is greedy or not, consumed by hatred or not, clouded or not, distracted or concentrated, etc. In this method one should be aware of all the movements of the mind, how they arise and disappear.

In relation to ideas, thoughts, concepts and things, one should know their nature, how they arise and disappear, how they

Four Noble Truths (chatvari aryasatyani), four truths of the Holy- one of the basic teachings of Buddhism, which all its schools adhere to. Four Noble Truths Buddha Shakyamuni himself formulated them and they can be briefly stated as follows: there is suffering; there is a cause of suffering - desire; there is a cessation of suffering - nirvana; There is a path leading to the cessation of suffering - the eightfold path.

They are given in the very first sermon of the Buddha, “Sutra of Launching the Wheel of Dharma”.

The First Noble Truth about Suffering

Thus, the cause of dissatisfaction is thirst ( tanha), which leads to continuous abiding in samsara. Satisfaction of desires is very fleeting and after a short time leads to the emergence of new desires. This creates a closed cycle of satisfying desires. The more desires cannot be satisfied, the more suffering increases.

The source of bad karma often lies in attachment and hatred. Their consequences lead to dissatisfaction. The root of attachment and hatred is ignorance, ignorance of the true nature of all beings and inanimate objects. This is not simply a consequence of insufficient knowledge, but a false worldview, an invention of the complete opposite of the truth, an erroneous understanding of reality.

The Third Noble Truth of Cessation

The Truth about the Cessation of Dukkha (dukkha nirodha(Sanskrit: निरोध, nirodha IAST ), Pali dukkhanirodho (nirodho - “cessation”, “attenuation”, “suppression”)). The Noble Truth about the cessation of restless dissatisfaction: “This is complete calm [of worries] and cessation, renunciation, separation, this is liberation with distance from that very thirst (liberation-withdrawal).”

A state in which there is no dukkha is achievable. Eliminating the defilements of the mind (unnecessary attachments, hatred, envy and intolerance) is the truth about the state beyond “suffering.” But it’s not enough to just read about it. To understand this truth, one must put meditation into practice to clear the mind. The fourth truth speaks about how to implement this in everyday life.

Some monks who traveled with the Buddha misunderstood the third truth as a complete renunciation of all desires in general, self-torture and complete limitation of all needs, therefore the Buddha in his speech warns against such an interpretation (see quote below). After all, even the Buddha himself had desires to eat, drink, dress, comprehend the truth, etc. That is, it is important here to separate the right desires from the wrong ones, and follow the “middle path” without going to extremes.

The Fourth Noble Truth of the Path

The Truth about the Path Leading to the Cessation of Dukkha (dukkha nirodha gamini patipada marga(Sanskrit: मार्ग, mārga IAST , literally "way"); Pali dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā (gāminī - “leading to”, paṭipadā - “path”, “practice”)).

To follow the “middle path” means to keep the golden mean between the physical and spiritual world, between asceticism and pleasures; means not going to extremes.

Denial of the Four Noble Truths

The Heart Sutra, followed by a number of Mahayana schools, denies the four noble truths (“there is no suffering, no cause of suffering, no cessation of suffering, no path”), which, as E. A. Torchinov points out, sounded blasphemous or even shocking to followers

Said by Gautama Buddha in his first sermon in the city of Benares. This teaching was recorded in a separate sutra and provided not only a written creed, but also a visual one. The sermon was delivered by Buddha in a deer park, so after that a deer or a pair of deer became one of the symbols of Buddhism.

The middle path is defined as the path of consciousness that remains far from two extremes: one extreme is the exaltation of sensual pleasures, and the other is complete asceticism, voluntary self-destruction. The view of the middle path leading to enlightenment and nirvana expresses the universal religious idea of ​​the golden mean and moderation in everything. So let's consider these truths spoken in the deer park.

The Truth About Suffering

“Birth is suffering, as is illness, death, old age, separation (from someone you like), something you want but do not achieve. In general, there are five attachment groups that draw a being into a cycle of rebirth and force it to accumulate so-called samskaras (impressions and consequences of experience). This truth states the presence of suffering as an integral attribute of this world.

The Truth About the Origin of Suffering

Suffering arises from aspirations, the thirst for existence and leads to rebirth. It is the need to provide certain aspirations that ensures the accumulation of karma (positive or negative) and always leads to the cycle of samsara. The reason for this is human ignorance. He allows himself to cling to the earth, lust and lust, anger, vanity, stupidity. This again pushes him into existence, and therefore into a new rebirth, and so on without stopping, always ending up in suffering.

The Truth about Ending Suffering

Suffering can be stopped by the elimination of passions; if a person does not connect with them, he eliminates his aspirations. Since suffering comes from man's desires for existence and the satisfaction of passions, the victory of his own desires can lead to the cessation of this suffering. If he succeeds in achieving impartiality, he will deprive suffering of support, that is, his consciousness will not be tied to the cycle of rebirth and suffering of this world. In Buddhism, no one relies on grace or expects help from above. Therefore, everyone must concentrate their energies to achieve personal liberation from suffering.

The Truth about the Path to Ending Suffering

This is the Eightfold Path and climbing it requires mastery of each step. The eight stages are: right view (view), right intention (or thinking), right speech, action (conduct), lifestyle, effort, right mindfulness (in the sense of awareness, that is, you remember what everything really is , including yourself), proper concentration or concentration.

1) Right View means accepting the Four Noble Truths. Of course, we should add here the acceptance of the basic tenets of the doctrine. At a minimum, it is often necessary to read a lot of commentaries on the four noble truths and meditate on them in order to actually gain, or at least get closer to, the right view.

2) Right thinking (intention) involves a conscious desire to live in accordance with these truths. Essentially, it is about determination to follow the Buddhist path. In addition, the development of friendliness towards others is essential here, part of which is the adoption of the so-called ahimsa - such a person cannot harm living beings (not just people). When the noble truths and the Buddhist path are accepted in the mind, friendliness actually develops quite naturally, without any additional effort.

3) Right speech means that a person should refrain from meaningless words and words of vanity, not speak rudely, not lie, and not use speech to quarrel or mislead people.

4) Right action is the norm according to which a person must refrain from unjustified negative actions - theft, murder, etc. In fact, this part of the Eightfold Path is a kind of analogue of the commandments of behavior from other religions.

5) The right lifestyle does not speak about behavior as such, but about the choice of profession and main activity. A Buddhist should not choose professions that directly or indirectly harm others. For example, making or selling alcohol, or committing fraud. There are actually many such examples. In order to understand what we are talking about, you just need to analyze whether the activity is actually harmful to some people. In the modern world, this rule is related to the environment. Accordingly, one should avoid behavior and especially work that harms the ecology of the planet.

6) Right effort requires the complete mobilization of will and human thought in order not to create negative thoughts, words and actions. Also, a Buddhist makes an effort to produce various aspects of goodness into this world. This effort is also aimed at cultivating positive qualities in oneself. There are more specific and detailed explanations in the literature, here it is said in simple words.

7) Right mindfulness actually involves complete self-control and self-observation. You must continuously maintain awareness, clearly observe the phenomena of the external and internal world, and this is actually not as easy as it might seem.

8) Right concentration - this extreme degree implies the achievement of deep meditation, complete concentration and self-sufficiency. This is similar to, but also different from, the mystical states of other religions. Comprehension of samadhi, the highest stage of meditation, leads to nirvana, that is, liberation.

The eight stages of the path are generally divided into three levels: ethical practice (correct speech, behavior and lifestyle); level of wisdom (view and intention); level of concentration and meditation (remaining stages of the path).

The Four Noble Truths are the basis of Buddhism

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The Buddha's teachings were expressed in the form of the Four Noble Truths.

"The First Noble Truth states that the fundamental characteristic of human existence is duhkha, that is, suffering and disappointment. Disappointment is rooted in our reluctance to acknowledge the obvious fact that everything around us is not eternal, everything is transitory. “All things arise and pass away,” said the Buddha, and the idea that fluidity and changeability are the basic properties of nature is the foundation of his teaching. According to Buddhists, suffering arises when we resist the flow of life and try to hold on to certain stable forms, which, be they things, phenomena, people or thoughts, are still maya. The principle of impermanence is also embodied in the idea that there is no special ego, no special “I” that would be the constant subject of our changing impressions. Buddhists believe that our belief in the existence of a separate individual "I" is another illusion, another form of maya, an intellectual concept devoid of connection with reality. If we adhere to such views, like any other stable categories of thinking, we will inevitably experience disappointment.

Second Noble Truth explains the cause of suffering, calling it trishna, that is, “clinging,” “attachment.” This is a meaningless attachment to life, arising from ignorance, which Buddhists call avidya. Due to our ignorance, we try to divide the world we perceive into separate independent parts and thus embody the fluid forms of reality in fixed categories of thinking. As long as we think like this, we will experience disappointment after disappointment. Trying to establish relationships with things that seem solid and permanent to us, but are in fact transitory and changeable, we find ourselves in a vicious circle in which any action generates further action, and the answer to any question raises new questions. In Buddhism, this vicious circle is known as samsara, the cycle of birth and death, the driving force of which is karma, the never-ending chain of cause and effect.

According to the Third Noble Truth, you can stop suffering and disappointment. You can leave the vicious cycle of samsara, free yourself from the bonds of karma and achieve a state of complete liberation - nirvana. In this state, there are no longer any false ideas about a separate “I”, and the constant and only sensation becomes the experience of the unity of all things. Nirvana corresponds to the moksha of the Hindus and cannot be described in more detail, since this state of consciousness lies outside the realm of intellectual concepts. To achieve nirvana means to awaken, that is, to become a Buddha.

Fourth Noble Truth indicates a means of getting rid of suffering, calling for following the Eightfold Path of self-improvement, which leads to Buddhahood. As already mentioned, the first two steps on this path have to do with right seeing and true knowledge, that is, right understanding of human life. Four more steps relate to right action. They contain a description of the rules that a Buddhist must follow - the rules of the Middle Way, which lies at an equal distance from the opposite extremes. The last two steps lead to correct awareness and correct meditation, to the direct mystical perception of reality, which is the final and highest goal of the Path.

The Buddha viewed his teaching not as a coherent philosophical system, but as a means to achieve enlightenment.

His statements about this world have one goal - to emphasize the impermanence of all things. He warned his followers against blindly worshiping any authority, including himself, saying that he could only show the path to Buddhahood and everyone should follow this path themselves, making their own efforts.

The last words of the Buddha on his deathbed characterize his entire worldview and teaching. Before leaving this world, he said: “Decomposition is the fate of all composed things. Be persistent."

For several centuries after the death of the Buddha, leading figures of the Buddhist church gathered several times at the Great Councils, where the provisions of the Buddha's teachings were read aloud and discrepancies in their interpretation were eliminated. At the fourth council, held in the 1st century. n. e. on the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the teachings, transmitted orally for five centuries, were first written down. It was called the Pali canon, since Buddhists then used the Pali language, and became the mainstay of orthodox Hinayana Buddhism. On the other hand, the Mahayana is based on a number of so-called sutras - works of considerable length written in Sanskrit one or two centuries later, which set out the teachings of the Buddha in more detail and detail than the Pali canon.

The Mahayana school calls itself the Great Vehicle of Buddhism, as it offers its followers many different methods, perfect means, to achieve Buddhahood - Buddhahood. These means include, on the one hand, religious faith in the teachings of the founder of Buddhism and, on the other, highly developed philosophical systems, the ideas of which are very close to the categories of modern scientific knowledge.”

Fridtjof Capra, The Tao of Physics: Common Roots of Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism, M., Sofia, 2008, p. 109-111.