History and evolution of human nutrition presentation. Dietary changes during human evolution

Introduction

I Human diet

in the process of evolutionary development

1.1 Main factors determining diet

human nutrition

1.2 Characteristic historical periods in change

diet

II Food culture

2.1 Scientifically based principles of human nutrition

2.1.1 Balanced diet

2.1.3 Balanced nutrition

2.2 Basics of proper nutrition

2.3 Nutrition of the future

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Centuries-old experience shows that the problem of nutrition has always been and remains quite acute. Food shortages have accompanied humanity throughout its thousand-year history. For example, in the mythology of the Indians of Central America there was even a deity of hunger. In Greek mythology, the first woman created by the Olympian gods, Pandora, opened the vessel they handed over and released the human vices and misfortunes contained in it, among which was famine, which spread throughout the Earth.

If we approach the problem of nutrition from a scientific point of view, then the need for food and the accompanying feeling of hunger are one of the most significant irritants of the human nervous system, inherent in it by nature. The feeling of hunger is dictated by the strongest instinct - the instinct of self-preservation. It should be noted, however, that for thousands of years physiological expediency (usefulness) was not always a criterion when choosing a diet. In the struggle for survival, especially in the early stages of evolution, he often had to eat what he could get: as they say, there was “no time for fat, if only I could live.” However, such a life of “hand to mouth” in general had its positive significance for evolution. The initial abundance of food would have fatally doomed people to remain at the stage of an appropriative economy, content with gathering, hunting and fishing.

Diet and nature of nutrition, as shown by research Kozlovskaya M.V. The phenomenon of nutrition in human evolution. Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. - M.; 2002, 30 p.

They left their significant imprint both on the formation of the digestive system and on the formation of other systems of the human body and were one of the most important components of the external environment in the evolutionary development of man.

I. HUMAN DIET IN THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION

1.1 The main factors that determined the human diet

Analyzing the whole variety of factors influencing the diet from the moment of the emergence of humanoid creatures to the present day, all their diversity can be reduced to three main groups of factors:

· territorial-climatic,

· socio-economic,

· cultural and ethnic.

Before describing changes in the human diet in chronological order, it would be logical to give a brief description of the above groups of factors and indicate the historical stages of the beginning of their influence. Let's take a closer look at each of the groups of factors.

The first anthropoid archanthropes lived in relatively fertile climatic regions of the planet (Central and Southern Africa) Economic history of the world. /Under the general editorship of M. V. Konotopov, - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co"; 2004 - 636 p.

Their life was highly dependent on climate, therefore, migrating over certain distances and in search of food, archanthropes were nevertheless “tied” to certain fertile territories, as was the case with animals living in certain climatic zones. Their nutrition depended entirely on only one of the above groups of factors - territorial-climatic. Naturally, it was decisive for many hundreds of thousands of years until a person, under the influence of external influences, began to change himself and change the system of social relations with his relatives.

With the advent of the tribal system, the development of agriculture and cattle breeding, people were able to accumulate surplus food products. A semblance of barter trade arose, and at the same time a gradual stratification of society began into the privileged part of the clan and its ordinary members. Accordingly, the composition and quantity of food received gradually began to change among individual members of the clan. Privileged members of the clan received more refined food and in larger quantities, if required. The remaining members received the same amount as everyone else, depending on the yield and other numerous factors related to the territorial and climatic group. But besides them they came into effect socio-economic factors.

Much later, at the stage of the emergence of the first states, formed ethnic cultures and religious beliefs, the diet became increasingly important. cultural-ethnic group factor. Its meaning was often determined by religious dogmas, although the latter in their recommendations were still based on certain practical experience, in particular in matters of nutrition. That is, in a number of beliefs, as modern scientific research shows, the recommendations had their rational grain.

At later stages of the development of human civilization, all three factors act in close interaction, with one of them usually standing out as dominant.

1.2 Characteristic historical periods in dietary changes

As established by research Economic history of the world. /Under the general editorship of M. V. Konotopov, - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co"; 2004 - 636 p.

Archanthropus appeared about 2.5 million years ago. It differed little in the nature of its diet from the great ape. Originating in the regions of Central and Southern Africa, it used as food the fruits of plants that grew at that time in the tropical climate of Africa. It can be assumed that these were the progenitors of plants such as groundnuts, bananas, young bamboo shoots, etc. The use of animal food was not typical for that period, although some historians do not exclude the use of carrion (the corpses of small rodents and other animals). The era of existence of the archanthropus lasted more than 1 million years. The nature and diet did not change significantly during this period.

After this long period, the Lower Paleolithic period began, characterized by the appearance of Pithecanthropus, that is, the ape-man, who existed during the Lower Paleolithic (about 600 thousand years) and the Middle Paleolithic (about 200 thousand years). Pithecanthropus lived in the territories of Northern China, Europe, the tropics of Java, and the steppes of Africa. The diet of Pithecanthropus, in addition to traditional plant food, included animal meat to a somewhat greater extent, since man, having learned by that time to make various tools from stone - large axes of the correct shape, scrapers, incisors, already had the opportunity to collectively hunt wild animals. The prey of primitive hunters were large animals: elephants, deer, bears, etc. During the Middle Paleolithic era, about 250 thousand years ago (with a total duration of about 200 thousand years), a glacier advanced. At this time, intensive adaptation of the human body to harsh environmental conditions occurs. More high-calorie foods (fats, proteins) were required than in previous warm climates, the main suppliers of which were meat and animal products. Under the influence of climate, the nature of nutrition and the social system (the primitive communal system is replaced by the clan system), the person himself changes. In particular, the consumption of meat, rich primarily in easily digestible proteins, in addition to the emergence of time for the development of a primitive semblance of crafts, contributed to significant changes in the structure of the human higher nervous system, which, according to many researchers of evolutionary processes, Kozlovskaya M.V. The phenomenon of nutrition in human evolution. Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. - M.; 2002, 30 p.

was a significant step in the formation of "homosapiens"as a species. Engels F. Dialectics of nature.

The gradually dying out Pithecanthropus was replaced by the Neanderthal during the Upper Paleolithic era (lasting about 30-36 thousand years). Neanderthals explore new areas of southern Europe, Asia, and Africa. Middle Stone Age people paid more attention to collecting edible plants, especially those that produce more fruit and are easier to collect. These were the progenitors of modern cereals - wheat, barley, rice, which in some areas of Asia formed entire fields. In America, corn, legumes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes were especially attractive, and the inhabitants of the Pacific Islands were attracted to tubers like yams or taro. Archaeological research has proven Khlebnikov V.I. Modern understanding of human nutrition and medical and biological requirements for products: Lecture / TsUMK of the Central Union of the Russian Federation. - M., 1990, 37 p.

That the oldest type of processed food was raw millet grain. Somewhat later - grains of wheat and other cereals. At the same time, in the last period of the Stone Age, the Neolithic (lasting about 3-4 thousand years), the hunting and gathering “appropriating” economy was gradually replaced by the “producing” economy - agriculture and cattle breeding, and with them the thermal processing of food. During the Mousterier period of the tribal community (the era of matriarchy), people deliberately began to use fire for cooking. The transition to agriculture and cattle breeding played a huge role not only in human social life, but also in his diet. This transition was rightly called the “Neolithic Revolution.”

During the Ice Age, when the glacier advanced and retreated a total of 6-7 times (the last advance ended about 10 thousand years ago). Before the Great Glaciation, Europe, for example, was covered with coniferous forests, but during the Ice Age it became tundra-like. The nature of both plants and animals consumed by humans as food changed. Ice ages lasted 100-200 thousand years. With the disappearance of large animals during the Mesolithic era, fish and shellfish are increasingly used as food. The sea coasts began to attract people: here in the shallow waters one could kill big fish, catch a lot of crabs, and collect shellfish. In more southern regions, the main food was red deer, roe deer, bison and wild boar. People also collected various seashells, shellfish and honey. Mesolithic hunters and fishermen ate almost exclusively the meat of forest animals and only occasionally the meat of seabirds, ducks, geese and swans. The freshwater fish that were caught were mainly pike. On the coast it happened that whales washed ashore were found - they were immediately cut into pieces and eaten. They also caught seals, cod, conger eels, crabs, sea bream, rays and sharks. Based on the numerous remains of plant food, it can be judged that people ate hazelnuts, water lily seeds, wild pears and berries. During the Neolithic period, man learned to cultivate cereals and raise domestic animals. With earthenware at his disposal, he was able to master various cooking methods. These methods have survived to this day. We inherited the art of making soups from our distant ancestors, who knew how to bring water seasoned with various herbs to a boil by immersing hot stones in it. The most ancient signs of regular collection of wild cereals were found in Palestine. They date back to the 10th - 9th millennium BC. e. Economic history of the world. /Under the general editorship of M. V. Konotopov, - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co"; 2004 - 636 p.

With the advent of primary cult beliefs, magical rituals, rivalry and enmity between different communities among Neanderthals, cannibalism rites could arise in individual communities. Researchers admit Kanevsky L. Cannibalism. - M.:: 2005, that Neanderthals could already believe in magical powers - the ability to influence people and animals in order to achieve the desired actions from them, the transfer of the power of a killed enemy to his conqueror when his internal organs are betrayed, etc.

With the transition to a sedentary existence, human life also changed. Hunter communities were usually small, about 20 people, and grew only when there was a large amount of food obtained from hunting. Communities of farmers and pastoralists numbered up to several hundred people, since the presence of domestic animals and acreage served as a guarantee of food supply for a long period for a large number of people. With the advent of cattle breeding, venison gradually gave way to livestock meat: beef, pork, and lamb. Bird hunting was still an important industry - as a means of obtaining oil for lamps. The fish was used as food for humans and also as feed for cattle. Salmon, sturgeon and eels were smoked and dried, preparing them for future use in the winter.

The appearance of metal played a major role in the life of society. It is noteworthy that the first experiments in metal smelting began with the production of fired pottery used for storing food. The first products made of copper and lead were found in settlements of the 7th-6th millennium BC. e. The development of metals, which included not only copper and bronze, but also gold and silver, was one of the signs of the onset of a new era. At the end of IV BC. e. The first states appear (in the southwest of Iran, and then in Egypt). These social formations already united people not according to their clan, but according to the territorial principle. The basis of social progress and the emergence of states, according to scientists, lies primarily in the possibility of creating sufficient surplus food products by primitive tribal communities. There was enough surplus not only to engage in crafts, farming, construction, to develop culture and religious teachings, but, most importantly, to sell food to neighbors. With the advent of states, humanity entered an era of organized trade and war. The nature of the wars differed significantly from the periodic raids on neighboring communities that took place under the clan system. Despite the fact that the first states were formed in climatic zones favorable for food production, nevertheless, the need for long military campaigns, as well as the development of trade with distant states, contributed to the conscious production and inclusion of shelf-stable foods in the human diet. These were the first prototypes of food concentrates and canned food: dry bread cakes, the simplest types of dried curd cheeses, dried meat and fish, dried fruits.

People learned about the intoxicating properties of alcoholic beverages a long time ago, no less than 8000 BC - with the advent of ceramic dishes, which made it possible to produce alcoholic beverages from honey, fruit juices and wild grapes. Perhaps winemaking arose even before the beginning of cultivated agriculture. Although modern science clearly classifies alcohol-containing drinks as narcotic substances, however, since alcohol as a drug has been part of food products for thousands of years, they should be considered in the human diet. Thus, the famous traveler N.N. Miklouho-Maclay observed the Papuans of New Guinea, who did not yet know how to make fire, but already knew how to prepare intoxicating drinks.

A significant event in the history of human nutrition should be considered the appearance of bread as a product containing the nutrients necessary from a nutritional point of view in the best ratio. Bread still remains a unique product among plant foods. It’s not for nothing that they say: “bread is the head of everything!” The first bread was in the form of a paste, which was first cooked in cold water, and later in hot water. The method of making bread from sour dough is attributed to the Egyptians. They learned to make leaven in the 3rd century BC. Bread gradually gained recognition as a product rich in essential nutrients, and also as a product that, after drying, could be stored for quite a long time. The ability to bake bread around 100 BC. e. has already spread throughout the world Khlebnikov V.I. Technology of goods (food): Textbook - 3rd ed. - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005 - 427 p.

Around the same time, humanity first began to consciously produce alcoholic beverages. The animal and plant foods common in the Middle East were somewhat different from the foods described above. In Ancient Egypt, most of the food consumed was cereals, mainly emmer wheat, barley and one type of common legume wheat. The Egyptians knew how to make at least thirty types of bread, cakes and gingerbread; they ate beans, peas and lentils. The exception was certain groups of priests who were not allowed to touch this type of food. Plant food consisted mainly of melons, lettuce, artichokes, cucumbers and radishes. The dishes were seasoned with onions, garlic and leeks. Among the fruits known were dates, figs, dumpalma nuts and pomegranates. The bread that was eaten in ancient times in the Middle East was usually baked from unleavened dough, so it was hard and dry and had nothing in common with the fluffy, white, fragrant bread that we are accustomed to. Yeast appeared in Egypt around the middle of the second millennium BC, but was rarely consumed. The ancient Greeks and Romans did not use yeast until the beginning of our era - until the Romans learned about it from the Spanish and Gallic Celts, whose favorite drink was beer. Yeast was made mainly from millet. Bread made with yeast was considered a luxury. The Egyptians consumed various vegetable oils and animal fats, drank goat and cow milk and made cheese from it. In addition to milk, residents of the Middle East drank weak beer. Wine was also produced, but it was considered a luxury item. The Egyptians sometimes used butter in melted form. They ate beef, goat, and lamb. But meat was expensive, and the poor more often ate ordinary and spicy salted fish, as well as the meat of wild ducks and geese, which abounded in the swampy floodplains of the Nile. In Ancient Mesopotamia, meat appeared on the table of the poor even less often than in Egypt. Its inhabitants ate mainly dried, salted and smoked fish. Instead of olive oil - olives did not grow in Mesopotamia - they used sesame oil. But Mesopotamia abounded in fruits, and its population knew cherries, apricots and peaches in ancient times. Cereals were most often used to prepare stews, porridges and flatbreads. The flatbreads were baked from flour mixed with vegetable oil and honey. Hard flatbreads made from hard, unleavened dough were baked on hot stones, in ashes, or on the hot walls of ovens shaped like beehives. Similar stoves, called tandoors, have survived to this day in Central Asia and Transcaucasia. At the beginning of the second millennium BC, they began to make something like baking trays in such ovens, on which loaves of yeast bread were placed. Almost every household had a clay stove with a flat surface and a round chimney.

Another “significant”, but rather sad event in the history of the diet can be considered the appearance of alcohol. Pure alcohol began to be produced in VI- VIIin n. e. centuries, the Arabs called it “al kogol”, which means “intoxicating”. The first bottle of vodka was made by the Arab Raghez in 860. Distilling wine to produce alcohol sharply worsened drunkenness. It is possible that this was the reason for the ban on the use of alcoholic beverages by the founder of Islam (Muslim religion) Muhammad (Mohammed, 570-632). This prohibition was subsequently included in the code of Muslim laws - the Koran (7th century). Since then, for 12 centuries, alcohol has not been consumed in Muslim countries, and apostates of this law (drunkards) have been severely punished.

But even in Asian countries, where the consumption of wine was prohibited by religion (the Koran), the cult of wine still flourished and was sung in poetry.

In the Middle Ages, Western Europe also learned to produce strong alcoholic beverages by sublimating wine and other fermenting sugary liquids. According to legend, this operation was first performed by the Italian monk alchemist Valentius. Having tried the newly obtained product and becoming highly intoxicated, the alchemist declared that he had discovered a miraculous elixir that makes an old man young, a tired man cheerful, and a yearning man cheerful.

The seasonal nature of the production of plant products, as well as climatic factors affecting productivity, and ultimately the amount of food supplies, largely determined the aggressiveness of individual states or clan communities towards their neighbors. Thus, neighboring the rich Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes, who lived in rather harsh climatic conditions for those times and with limited food supplies, constantly carried out raids for the purpose of, among other things, obtaining food. Ultimately, under the onslaught of various barbarian tribes coming from the north, the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD. The ancient Germans and Scandinavians (Varangians or Vikings) were cattle breeders and farmers. Their wealth was measured by the number of livestock, which were used as a unit of exchange. The diet of these northern peoples was predominantly meat. Combined with the need for active physical work, this determined the body constitution of these peoples. They were taller, physically stronger and more resilient than their southern neighbors, the Romans. It is interesting that among the reasons for the fall of the empire, researchers also name the physical characteristics of the barbarians.

The problem of crop failure for the states of the middle climate zone of Europe, in contrast to its southern regions (the so-called “cradles” of civilization), has traditionally been acute. Until the XIV-XV centuries. famine repeatedly decimated millions of people. In addition, famine was accompanied by all kinds of epidemics (famine typhus) and other diseases that caused mass deaths. In England, for example, in 1005-1322. 36 similar famine epidemics were recorded. Only in the late Middle Ages didefood shortages in European countries are starting to weakenAbevat: observed development of trade, establishment of storagee grain production, improvement of transport - all this eased the lot of the population in lean years and partially saved them from premature death.

During the formation of class society, the human diet is significantly influenced by culinary art. A certain, even refined, ceremony-like culture of eating food appears. Often, culinary art has a pronounced national and geographical character, that is, it pays tribute to the traditions of eras when the territorial, climatic and cultural-ethnic groups of factors that determined the diet were decisive. In the evolution of culinary art there were both main directions and branches. Some of them, due to their insolvency, became obsolete, others remained for a long time. Culinary art has always developed under the influence of a certain, now cultural environment, as well as classes and classes. With a favorable economic situation, for wealthy groups of people it often depended on the fashion imposed by a certain social stratum, prestige or habits (sometimes the tyranny of individuals, for example, among the patricians of the Roman Empire, pates made from nightingale tongues were fashionable). At the same time, as we see, the socio-economic group of factors is increasingly becoming dominant. When talking about the fashion for a particular dish or drink, one cannot help but touch upon the topic of alcohol, which at that time was becoming widespread at feasts. This topic is especially relevant for Russia, since it is widely believed that Russians have a national passion for vodka since ancient times. However, the spread of drunkenness in Rus' is associated primarily with the policies of the ruling classes. An opinion was even created that drunkenness was supposedly an ancient tradition of the Russian people. At the same time, they referred to the words of the chronicle: “Fun in Rus' is drinking.” But this is slander against the Russian nation. Russian historian and ethnographer, expert on the customs and morals of the people, professor N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) completely refuted this opinion. He proved that in Ancient Rus' they drank very little. Only on selected holidays were they brewed mead, mash or beer, the strength of which did not exceed 5-10 degrees. The glass was passed around and everyone took a few sips from it. No alcoholic drinks were allowed on weekdays, and drunkenness was considered the greatest shame and sin. But until the end XVII centuries, it was invariably based on local national and cultural cuisines, closely related to the natural conditions of a particular country, with the historical achievements and religious precepts of a particular people Pokhlebkin V.V. National cuisines of our peoples. (Main directions, their history and features. Recipe) - 2nd ed. processed and additional - M.: Agropromizdat, 1991. 608 p.

. In general, in the era of class stratification, significant changes occur in the diets of people of different social groups. IN XVII century, throughout Europe and some Asian countries, differences between the cuisine of the ruling classes and the cuisine of the people were sharply marked. From now on, they differ in the amount of food, the assortment of dishes, the variety of their presentation and the amount of food raw materials.

With the industrialization of society at the beginning XX century the number of rural population is decreasing. Nutrition is becoming more simplified and standardized. This period was called “rationalistic nutrition”. It started at the endXIXcentury in the United States and spread widely throughout the world. The bottom line was that food should be simple in terms of raw materials and preparation methods and therefore consist of semi-finished products and should be consumed cold or lightly boiled or heated. This gave the main advantage - the rapid provision of food to large masses of people at the same time with the relative cheapness of this food. The main products were canned food with plant and animal raw materials, sausages, sandwiches and ready-made drinks, most often cold.

After the 2nd World War, the position of rationalistic nutrition strengthened even more until the 70s. In the mid-70s, with a radical improvement in international supplies, the virtual elimination of seasonality in food production, and revolutions in kitchen equipment, the urban population was allowed to return to national sources of nutrition, more valuable physiologically from the point of view of the genetic disposition of the enzymatic apparatus of a particular ethnic group. Pokhlebkin V.V. National cuisines of our peoples. (Main directions, their history and features. Recipe) - 2nd ed. processed and additional - M.: Agropromizdat, 1991. 608 p.

Currently, countries with developed economies are undergoing a certain revaluation of values. There is a certain desire for a healthy lifestyle in general and nutrition in particular. However, the market nature of relations in most industrialized countries often leads to the fact that demand generates proposals for healthy food in such quantities and in such a distorted form that it is quite difficult for an uninitiated person to understand the huge flow of information. Moreover, this information is mostly of a purely advertising nature with a minimal degree of objectivity. After all, the goal of each of the next brands glorifying this or that type of “Snickers” or “hamburger” is profit, and a person is considered only as a carrier of a wallet, the contents of which attract the producers of all this nutritious food. The population is urged not to think about the benefits of this or that food product, but to eat what advertising suggests: “don’t slow down - grab a snickers!” On the contrary, now, in an era of abundance of products on offer, one should listen especially carefully to serious scientific recommendations in the field of nutrition. Serious and balanced, not “precocious,” but fashionable.

FOOD CULTURE

2.1 Scientifically based principles of human nutrition

2.1.1 Balanced diet

This is the name of one of the first scientifically based systems of eating. The theory of a balanced diet, which emerged more than two hundred years ago, prevailed in dietetics until recently. Its essence can be reduced to several provisions:

b) food consists of several components of different physiological significance: beneficial, ballast and harmful;

d) human metabolism is determined by the level of concentration of amino acids, monosaccharides (glucose, etc.), fatty acids, vitamins and minerals.

Awareness of the shortcomings of the concept of a balanced diet stimulated new scientific research in the fields of digestive physiology, food biochemistry and microbiology.

Firstly, it has been proven that dietary fiber is an essential component of food.

Secondly, new digestive mechanisms were discovered, according to which food digestion occurs not only in the intestinal cavity, but also directly on the intestinal wall, on the membranes of intestinal cells with the help of enzymes.

Thirdly, a previously unknown special hormonal system of the intestine was discovered;

And finally, fourthly, valuable information was obtained regarding the role of microbes that live permanently in the intestines and their relationship with the host organism.

All this led to the emergence of a new concept in dietetics - the concept of adequate nutrition, which absorbed everything valuable from the theory and practice of balanced nutrition.

According to new trends, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, an idea was formed about endoecology - the internal ecology of a person, based on the affirmation of the important role of intestinal microflora. It has been proven that a special relationship of interdependence is maintained between the human body and the microbes that live in its intestines. In accordance with the provisions of the theory of adequate nutrition, nutrients are formed from food during the enzymatic breakdown of its macromolecules due to both cavity and membrane digestion, as well as through the formation of new compounds in the intestine, including essential ones. Concise Encyclopedia of Household Economics / Ed. Board: I.M. Terekhov (chief editor) and others - M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1984. - 576 p. with ill.

Normal nutrition of the human body is determined not by one flow of nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract into the internal environment, but by several flows of nutrients and regulatory substances. In this case, of course, the main flow of nutrients consists of amino acids, monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), fatty acids, vitamins and minerals formed during the enzymatic breakdown of food. But, in addition to the main flow, five more independent flows of various substances enter the internal environment from the gastrointestinal tract. Among them, the flow of hormonal and physiologically active compounds produced by cells of the gastrointestinal tract deserves special attention. These cells secrete about 30 hormones and hormone-like substances that control not only the functioning of the digestive apparatus, but also the most important functions of the entire body. Three more specific flows are formed in the intestine, associated with the intestinal microflora, which are waste products of bacteria, modified ballast substances and modified nutrients. And finally, harmful or toxic substances coming with contaminated food are released into a separate stream.

Thus, the main idea of ​​the new theory was that nutrition should not only be balanced, but also adequate, i.e., corresponding to the capabilities of the body.

2.1.3 Balanced diet

Translated from Latin, the word “diet” means a daily portion of food, and the word “rational” is correspondingly translated as reasonable or expedient. Rational nutrition is the nutrition of a healthy person, built on a scientific basis, capable of quantitatively and qualitatively satisfying the body’s need for energy.

The energy value of food is measured in calories(one calorie is equal to the amount of heat required to heat 1 liter of water by 1 degree). Human energy expenditures are expressed in the same units. In order for the weight of an adult to remain unchanged while maintaining a normal functional state, the influx of energy into the body from food must be equal to the energy expenditure for certain work. This is the basic principle of rational nutrition, taking into account climatic and seasonal conditions, age and gender of workers. But the main indicator of energy exchange is the amount of physical activity. At the same time, fluctuations in metabolism can be quite significant. For example, metabolic processes in vigorously working skeletal muscle can increase 1000 times compared to muscle at rest. Khlebnikov V.I. Technology of goods (food): Textbook - 3rd ed. - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005 - 427 p.

Even with complete rest, energy is spent on the functioning of the body - this is the so-called basal metabolism. Energy consumption at rest in 1 hour is approximately 1 kilocalorie per kilogram of body weight.

Currently, due to excessive consumption of fats and carbohydrates, mainly confectionery and sweets, the calorie content of a person’s daily diet reaches 8,000 and even 11,000 kcal. At the same time, there are observations that reducing the calorie content of the diet to 2000 kcal and even lower leads to an improvement in many body functions, provided that the diet is balanced and contains sufficient vitamins and microelements. This is confirmed by studying the nutrition of centenarians. Thus, the average caloric intake of the diet of Abkhazians who live 90 years or more has been 2013 kcal for many years. Exceeding the calorie content of food compared to the physiological norm leads to overweight, and then to obesity, when on this basis some pathological processes can develop - atherosclerosis, some endocrine diseases, etc. Nutrition can be considered rational only when it provides the human body’s need for plastic (building) substances, replenishes its energy costs without excess, corresponds to the physiological and biochemical capabilities of a person, and also contains all other substances necessary for it: vitamins, macro-, micro- and ultramicroelements, free organic acids, ballast substances and a number of other biopolymers. Since all of the above enters the human body from the outside, rational nutrition can and should also be considered as a naturally conditioned relationship between a person and his environment. But food differs from all agents of the external environment in that inside our body it becomes an internal factor specific to it. Some elements that make up this factor are converted into the energy of physiological functions, others into structural formations of organs and tissues. The nutrition of any person should be rational, that is, reasonable and scientifically sound, appropriate. This is an ideal that can be difficult to achieve in real life, and to be completely honest, impossible, but one should strive for it.

The most important principle of a balanced diet is the correct ratio of the main nutrients - proteins, fats and carbohydrates. This ratio is expressed by the formula 1:1:4, and for heavy physical labor - 1:1:5, in old age - 1:0.8:3. Balance also provides for a relationship with calorie indicators.

Based on the balance formula, an adult who does not engage in physical labor should receive 70-100 g of proteins and fats and about 400 g of carbohydrates per day, of which no more than 60-80 g of sugar. Proteins and fats must be of animal and vegetable origin. It is especially important to include vegetable fats in food (up to 30% of the total), which have protective properties against the development of atherosclerosis and reduce cholesterol in the blood. It is very important that food contains a sufficient amount of all vitamins necessary for a person (there are about 30 in total), especially vitamins A, E, which are soluble only in fats, C, P and group B - water-soluble. There are especially many vitamins in liver, honey, nuts, rose hips, black currants, cereal sprouts, carrots, cabbage, red peppers, lemons, and also in milk. During periods of increased physical and mental stress, it is recommended to take vitamin complexes and increased doses of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Considering the stimulating effect of vitamins on the central nervous system, you should not take them at night, and since most of them are acids, take them only after meals to avoid an irritating effect on the gastric mucosa. Khlebnikov V.I. Modern understanding of human nutrition and medical and biological requirements for products: Lecture / TsUMK of the Central Union of the Russian Federation. - M., 1990, 37 p.

From the above we can deduce the basic principles of rational nutrition:

The first principle of rational nutrition says that it is necessary to maintain a balance between the energy supplied by food, i.e., the caloric content of food, and the energy expenditure of the body.

The second principle of rational nutrition is that it is necessary to maintain a balance between the proteins, fats, carbohydrates and vitamins, minerals and ballast components entering the body.

Third principle rational nutrition requires a person to have a certain diet , i.e., distributing food intake throughout the day, maintaining favorable food temperatures, etc.

The last, fourth, law of rational nutrition prescribes taking into account age-related needs body and, in accordance with them, carry out the necessary preventive adjustments to the diet.

A long-term age-related imbalance between the intake of a substance into the body, on the one hand, and its breakdown or excretion, on the other, leads to metabolic asymmetry. It has been established that age-related metabolic disorders are closely related to the occurrence of such common diseases as excess weight, atherosclerosis, salt deposition, etc. That is why it is so necessary that daily nutrition ensures timely and complete satisfaction of the body’s physiological needs for basic nutrients .

2.2 Basics of proper nutrition

A food ration is a set of products a person needs for a certain period of time (usually a day, a week). Modern physiology Pokhlebkin V.V. National cuisines of our peoples. (Main directions, their history and features. Recipe) - 2nd ed. processed and additional - M.: Agropromizdat, 1991. 608 p.

Argues that the human diet should contain foods belonging to all major groups: meat, fish, milk, eggs, grains and legumes, vegetables, fruits, vegetable oil. Some nutritional systems and the practice of religious fasting are based on the exclusion of certain foods from the diet.

Including a variety of foods in your daily diet allows you to provide the human body with all the substances it needs in optimal proportions. Products of animal origin are better absorbed (see Table 2.2), especially proteins. Proteins are absorbed better from meat, fish, eggs and dairy products than from bread, cereals, vegetables and fruits. For example, meat supplies protein with an optimal amino acid composition, well-absorbed iron, vitamin B12 and a number of other essential substances, while fruits and vegetables supply the human body with vitamin C, folic acid, beta-carotene, plant fiber, potassium and other substances lacking in animal food . The composition of the diet affects a person’s activity, performance, resistance to disease, and longevity. An imbalance of nutrients in the diet leads to increased fatigue, apathy, decreased performance, and then to more pronounced manifestations of nutritional diseases (hypovitaminosis, avitaminosis, anemia, protein-energy deficiency). Adding vegetables to meat and cereal dishes increases the absorption of the proteins they contain up to 85-90%. Scientifically proven Kozlovskaya M.V. The phenomenon of nutrition in human evolution. Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. - M.; 2002, 30 p.

Also, that eating style is transmitted by heredity at the chromosomal level. This is especially clearly expressed in the example of ethnic groups living in a compact territory for thousands of years and having a characteristic diet consisting of a relatively limited set of products (peoples of the north, inhabitants of the Polynesian islands, etc.). Attempts to switch to a more “diverse” diet, different from the one that has developed over centuries, are always associated with adaptation processes, accompanied by various diseases.

Table 2.2

Food traditions in each region have evolved over centuries, and those accepted in Russia are completely unacceptable, say, on the Hindustan Peninsula or on the Japanese Islands. In the history of diet, no one sought to blindly introduce the experience and traditions of other peoples at home or to unify the food diet for all people, fitting them into the same mold. Proper nutrition for each of us, regardless of gender, age, lifestyle, etc., is a diet that does not cause chronic diseases, disruption of the gastrointestinal tract, discomfort during digestion, constipation and does not lead to a delay in natural body waste and self-poisoning.

Thus, the ideal diet can be considered to be one that is ideal for digestion. In the process of analyzing the main theories of nutrition that claim to be called ideal, it was established that each of the considered theories of nutrition has specific physiological foundations, which in some cases are deviations from the norm.

Nothing is ideal for humanity as a whole, since ideal can be defined according to ethnic, social, religious and personal ideas and feelings.

2.3 Nutrition of the future

According to the UN Khlebnikov V.I. Technology of goods (food): Textbook - 3rd ed. - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005 - 427 p.

In 2000, the world's population was 6.1 billion people. The theoretical need for food for the year 2000, taking into account 10% losses during digestion and conversion (excrement), 40% losses during harvesting, storage and processing, and cooking, amounted to 40 * 1012 MJ in energy terms. With an average calorie content of food of 20 MJ per 1 kg of dry matter and an average moisture content of 40%, this corresponds to 3.35 billion tons of food products.

To meet human protein needs, food products must contain an average of 5% protein. Theoretically, as of January 1, 2000, 3,350 million tons of food products were required to provide the population. Such a quantity of products was already produced at the end of the 70s. However, the food problem to this day not only remains quite acute, but also continues to worsen. Since the mid-1970s, 50% of the population in developing countries produces only 30% of food. Moreover, some of them are exported by these countries to obtain foreign exchange reserves. At the same time, industrialized countries are taking measures to limit food production for purely economic reasons. Currently, according to UN estimates, about 500 million people in developing countries are seriously undernourished. According to UNESCO, only 30% of the protein consumed by the world's population comes from animal proteins, which does not meet physiological standards. At the same time, it is noted that the possibility of expanding acreage is limited. Based on this, a number of scientists believe that Malthus’s theory about the overpopulation of the planet is completely justified. However, from a humanistic point of view, this is a very dangerous delusion. This gives grounds for some radical politicians pursuing an aggressive policy towards neighboring states to justify their inhumane plans for the mass extermination of people, often on ethnic grounds. There can be no basis to support Malthus’s theory, and this is confirmed by the calculations of independent UN experts: by 2110, the population will stabilize at 10.5 billion people.

Among the possible ways to increase food production, scientists include:

1. Increasing the productivity of plant crops and breeding new plant varieties.

2. Use of non-traditional raw materials: for example, the use of possum meat, lizards, snakes, raccoons, dogs, fried locusts, fried grasshoppers, termite ants (the latter contain 60-65% protein after frying!), chafers, etc.

3. Use of artificial reservoirs for breeding productive varieties of fish, etc.

Among the many calculations of the Earth's agricultural potential, one of the most fundamental was carried out in the 70s. a group of Dutch scientists. They estimated the entire territory suitable for agricultural development at 3714 million hectares. This amounts to 27.4% of the entire landmass (excluding Antarctica), of which irrigation in the future can realistically cover up to 470 million hectares of arable land. In light of these indicators, the maximum possible (taking into account the limitations that photosynthetic resources impose on the natural process of biomass formation) biological productivity of the cultivated wedge was calculated in grain equivalent at 49,830 million tons per year. However, in practice, a person will always have to allocate a significant part of the cultivated area to industrial, tonic, fodder and other non-food crops.

At the present stage, the emphasis is increasingly shifting to the need to increase yields in developing countries, which have the opportunity to rely on agronomic and other scientific and technological achievements already existing in the world. However, the very specific and still poorly understood natural background of the tropics, the extremely sensitive reaction of their natural geosystems to anthropogenic influences, the excess of labor in the rural areas of the Third World, the high energy intensity of progressive agricultural technologies - all this limits the possibilities of traditional agriculture on the path of its intensification.

There is reason to believe that good prospects are opened by the active introduction in countries of low latitudes of the practice of second and even third sowings per year, which requires, first of all, early ripening varieties and irrigation if there is a dry season. Therefore, it is logical to associate great hopes with the successes of selection and genetics. An example of a breakthrough in genetics is the emergence of highly productive hybrid varieties of wheat, unexpected even for specialists, in the mid-60s, which served as a signal for the rapid development of the “green revolution”. Although genetically modified products that are now widely distributed can cause allergies, and subsequently other negative manifestations.

Considerable chances are provided by improving the sectoral structure of crops, in particular, the introduction of protein-rich crops. It is known what a major contribution to the provision of productive dairy cattle breeding with high-calorie feeds has been made by soybean, which has become widespread in the United States.

In 1995, there were 88 low-income food-insecure countries in the world. Of these, more than 30 in previous years allocated more than ½ of their export earnings for its purchase. It is noteworthy that these countries also include Russia, in whose imports food products consistently account for 25-30% in value.

Thus, the solution to the food problem is increasingly becoming an important component of the general issue of improving the entire system of international atnational economic relations.

Based on the level of food supply today, the following types of countries can be distinguished:

1) The main exporters of food products (USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa, Thailand, and some states of the European Union);

2) small countries that actively export food products (Hungary, Finland);

3) states experiencing food shortages, but capable of acquiring it (Japan);

4) countries that barely meet their food needs with their own production (India, China, South American countries);

5) countries whose food supply has virtually no impact on the global food situation (Papua New Guinea, Iceland);

6) countries experiencing food shortages and developing water and land resources to achieve self-sufficiency (Egypt, Indonesia, Pakistan, Philippines);

7) countries with constantly deteriorating food supply per capita (sub-Saharan African countries);

8) countries with an emerging food crisis, in which population growth is outpacing resource capabilities (Haiti, Nepal, El Salvador).

Interesting prospects are observed in the relatively young food production industry. Over the past decade, the dietary supplement industry has become one of the most dynamically developing industries. The previously unknown concept of “biologically active food supplements” is now familiar to almost everyone, and most people use them in one form or another for health purposes.

As historical and medical research shows, and as evidenced by ancient Chinese, ancient Greek and medieval medical treatises, for many millennia the main therapeutic agent for humans was food itself. It was with the help of various types of food that ancient man tried to regulate his health. Let us recall, for example, medicinal plants, most of which are edible, honey and bee products, fish oil, etc.

The experience of using the therapeutic and prophylactic properties of food includes V. I. Khlebnikov. Modern understanding of human nutrition and medical and biological requirements for products: Lecture / TsUMK of the Central Union of the Russian Federation. - M., 1990, 37 p.

At least several thousand years, but only at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries did folk wisdom acquire the force of scientific fact. It was then, thanks to the development of chemical science, that so-called biologically active substances were isolated from a wide variety of food products, which determine the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of food.

In a relatively short time, dozens of classes of biologically active substances, such as vitamins and vitamin-like substances, phospholipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids, amino acids, microelements, etc., were isolated from a wide variety of food products. It was then that the first biologically active drugs appeared, or, as we now call them We call them biologically active food supplements. Biologically active substances and, above all, vitamins, isolated directly from food products or synthesized chemically, made a real revolution in medicine at the beginning of the 20th century. Many diseases that were previously considered incurable were defeated. However, starting from the 1950s, this promising direction was forgotten, since by this time the first pharmacological drugs had been synthesized, which seemed to be tens of times more effective. Man mastered the most complex pharmacological technologies, began to create “medicines of the future” and began to look at biologically active substances in food as tools of the Stone Age. This was one of the reasons that food was no longer considered a source of therapeutic and prophylactic substances, and in just 20-30 years the human diet in industrialized countries has changed most dramatically. Most vegetables and fruits, whole grains, medicinal and spicy plants and many other products that have been used by humans for thousands of years, including for medicinal purposes, have disappeared from it. However, by the mid-1970s it became clear that pharmacological drugs were not nearly as powerful. Synthetic substances foreign to the human body have begun to cause a large number of complications and allergic reactions. It was found that one of the main causes of the most common diseases was a sharp change in the nature of nutrition and a deficiency of most biologically active food components, since the traditional diet that had developed over thousands of years, containing hundreds of different substances necessary for human life, was disrupted. As a result, people were forced to synthesize more and more new drugs just to cope with the consequences of a deficiency of the most important biologically active substances, and not always successfully and often at the cost of severe side effects. To solve this problem, at the turn of the 1970-80s, a new large class of therapeutic and prophylactic agents was launched, which were called biologically active food additives.

Having examined the history of changes in the human diet in chronological order, it can be noted that the most significant events that significantly influenced the nature of human nutrition should be considered

1 The beginning of the consumption of animal food around 300 thousand years BC, primarily the meat of warm-blooded animals in the early stages of human formation, greatly predetermined the course of his evolutionary development.

2 The use of thermally processed food around 10 thousand years BC. e., which significantly influenced the further formation of the enzymatic apparatus of man himself and allowed him to quickly and easily digest many types of food.

3 About 4 thousand years BC. e. For the first time, humanity began to use special types of food processing for long-term storage.

4 The appearance of yeast types of bread around 3 thousand years BC. e. contributed to its gradual and widespread spread throughout the planet and placed bread among the most valuable in terms of balance of nutrients.

5 The first alcohol, obtained about 1300 years ago, marked the beginning of the spread of the most severe forms of alcoholism, since humanity for centuries until recently believed that alcohol in moderate doses was useful and could be classified as a food product.

6 The active development of trade and food storage methods significantly reduced the risk of famine about 700 years ago.

7 Division of diet along class lines about 400 years ago.

8 The introduction of the principles of rational nutrition about 100 years ago.

9 A significant weakening of the problem of food supply to various regions of the planet by the mid-70s of the 20th century makes it possible to have the most exotic fruits and products of animal origin in the diet of modern man, no matter what region of the world he lives in.

10 Currently, humanity is on the verge of solving problems:

· healthy eating and still like thousands of years ago

· food problem (threat of hunger)

LIST OF REFERENCES USED

1. Economic history of the world. /Under the general editorship of M. V. Konotopov, - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co"; 2004 - 636 p.

2. Khlebnikov V.I. Modern understanding of human nutrition and medical and biological requirements for products: Lecture / TsUMK of the Central Union of the Russian Federation. - M., 1990, 37 p.

3. Pokhlebkin V.V. National cuisines of our peoples. (Main directions, their history and features. Recipe) - 2nd ed. processed and additional - M.: Agropromizdat, 1991. 608 p.

4. Kozlovskaya M. V. The phenomenon of nutrition in human evolution. Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. - M.; 2002, 30 p.

5. Kanevsky L. Cannibalism. - M.:: 2005

6. Engels F. Dialectics of nature.

7. Khlebnikov V.I. Technology of goods (food): Textbook - 3rd ed. - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005 - 427 p.

8. Concise Encyclopedia of Household Economy / Ed. Board: I.M. Terekhov (chief editor) and others - M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1984. - 576 p. with ill.

Human evolution is a gradual process, dating back several million years from our immediate ancestors (who in turn evolved from other primates about 7 million years ago) to modern Homo habilis.

How did nutrition influence the process of evolution?

It is known that at first primitive people used mainly plants for food. Later they began to eat food of animal origin. Scientists have found that the ancient ancestors of modern humans began to eat meat only about fifteen million years ago.

It is believed that it was thanks to the appearance of meat in the diet, which, as is known, contains proteins and amino acids that promote brain development, that man became intelligent. And the amount of food of animal and plant origin in the people’s diet varied depending on living conditions and climate. The change in nutrition caused the restructuring of the body.

For about one million years, the first man, now called “Homo habilis” (translated as “Human Skilled Man”), ate raw plant and animal foods, only occasionally roasting the meat of various animals he had hunted.

But more than five hundred thousand years ago, Homo erectus, or Homo erectus, already used fire to smoke and fry foods that would then last longer. Food that was heat-treated over fire was easier to chew, faster and better absorbed, which influenced the formation of the human digestive system in such a way that it could absorb many types of different foods.

According to anthropologists, part of the energy that was previously spent searching for and digesting food was freed up and went to the development of the cerebral cortex. The change in the way of eating was also reflected in the appearance of a person: his teeth became smaller in the process of evolution, the lower jaw became less massive and no longer protruded forward.

During an era of severe cooling, Neanderthals appeared on planet earth. They were characterized by cannibalism, since in their lives there were long periods of hunger, when they did not hesitate to eat even their fellow tribesmen. People would not have survived a significant decrease in temperature without meat and animal fat - high-calorie and thermogenic food, that is, giving a higher heat output. The diet of representatives of Homo sapiens who lived on Earth later was much more varied.

During human evolution, selection has taken place for resistance to the lack of various nutrients. In some cases, adaptability could be very peculiar. For example, nitrogen-fixing microorganisms capable of converting nitrogen from inhaled air into amino acids were found in the intestines of the natives of New Guinea.

The digestion of these microorganisms in the small intestine helps to provide additional nitrogen to the body and thus compensate for the deficiency of protein and amino acids in food.

The appearance of dwarf tribes is another manifestation of adaptability. As scientists discovered at the end of the twentieth century, the cause of dwarfism in some peoples of the Pacific Islands, tropical forests of Africa and India is a poor perception of growth hormone.

Due to the adaptation of the human body to the cold conditions of the North, the metabolism of people who have lived there for centuries has changed: the energy value of fats and proteins has increased and the value of carbohydrates has decreased. For example, the Eskimos of Greenland do not even have enzymes that break down carbohydrates into sucrose and trehalose. Switching to a vegetarian diet for this ethnic group would be a disaster.

Another example of evolutionary adaptation to nutritional conditions is the dependence of milk digestion on the activity of an enzyme called “lactose.” It turns out that this enzyme is active in children up to five or six years old, and then throughout a person’s life its activity gradually decreases.

The traditions of dairy farming in Europe contributed to the spread of a gene in European populations that ensured constant lactose activity. Most Asian populations, the aborigines of Australia, Central Africa, America, and the indigenous peoples of the Far North do not have such a gene, so for them, drinking fresh milk is fraught with digestive problems.

But people have learned to “bypass” these genetically determined biological limitations. They began to produce fermented milk products that contain two to ten times less lactose. These products can be safely consumed even by those with very low lactose activity.

Over the past one hundred to one hundred and fifty years, the nature of human nutrition has again changed dramatically. We eat exotic foods brought to us from different parts of the world, we use flavor enhancers, artificial colors, flavors, and modified organisms. The future will show what changes in the human body these innovations in diet will lead to.

CONCLUSIONS

Having examined the history of changes in the human diet in chronological order, it can be noted that the most significant events that significantly influenced the nature of human nutrition should be considered:

1. The beginning of the consumption of animal food around 300 thousand years BC, primarily the meat of warm-blooded animals in the early stages of human formation, greatly predetermined the course of his evolutionary development.

2. The use of thermally processed food around 10 thousand years BC. e., which significantly influenced the further formation of the enzymatic apparatus of man himself and allowed him to quickly and easily digest many types of food.

3. About 4 thousand years BC. e. For the first time, humanity began to use special types of food processing for long-term storage.

4. The appearance of yeast types of bread around 3 thousand years BC. e. contributed to its gradual and widespread spread throughout the planet and placed bread among the most valuable in terms of balance of nutrients.

5. The first alcohol, obtained about 1300 years ago, marked the beginning of the spread of the most severe forms of alcoholism, since humanity for centuries until recently believed that alcohol in moderate doses was healthy and could be classified as a food product.

6. The active development of trade and food storage methods significantly reduced the danger of famine about 700 years ago.

7. Division of diet along class lines about 400 years ago.

8. The introduction of the principles of rational nutrition about 100 years ago.

9. A significant weakening of the problem of supplying food to various regions of the planet by the mid-70s of the 20th century makes it possible to have the most exotic fruits and products of animal origin in the diet of a modern person, no matter what region of the world he lives in.

10. Currently, humanity is on the verge of solving problems:

· healthy eating and still like thousands of years ago

· food problem (threat of hunger)

LIST OF REFERENCES USED

1. Economic history of the world. /Under the general editorship of M. V. Konotopov, - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co"; 2004 – 636 p.

2. Khlebnikov V.I. Modern understanding of human nutrition and medical and biological requirements for products: Lecture / TsUMK of the Central Union of the Russian Federation. – M., 1990, 37 p.

3. Pokhlebkin V.V. National cuisines of our peoples. (Main directions, their history and features. Recipe) - 2nd ed. processed and additional – M.: Agropromizdat, 1991. 608 p.

4. Kozlovskaya M. V. The phenomenon of nutrition in human evolution. Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. – M.; 2002, 30 p.

5. Kanevsky L. Cannibalism. – M.:: 2005

6. Engels F. Dialectics of nature.

7. Khlebnikov V.I. Technology of goods (food): Textbook - 3rd ed. - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005 - 427 p.

8. Concise Encyclopedia of Household Economy / Ed. Board: I.M. Terekhov (chief editor) and others - M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1984. – 576 p. with ill.

According to Boyd Eaton, "We humans have a set of characteristics that have evolved over millions of years; much of our biochemistry and physiology is adapted to the conditions of life that existed before the agricultural revolution, approximately 10,000 years ago. Genetically, our bodies are essentially the same as they were in the Paleolithic era - about 20,000 years ago."

Thus, the ideal diet for human health and well-being should resemble the prehistoric diet.

The basis of this statement is the idea that natural selection had sufficient time to genetically adapt the metabolism and physiology of primitive man to the changing nutritional conditions of that era. But over the past 10,000 years, the introduction of agriculture and its rapid development have changed the human diet so quickly that our ancestor did not have time to obtain the optimal genetic modification to match the new products.

The physiological and metabolic consequences of maladaptation, such as diabetes, have been well demonstrated in Native American populations converted from traditional to civilized diets.

People in the United States and other Western countries get more than 70% of their energy from dairy products, grains, refined sugars, refined vegetable oils, and alcohol, which are not part of the human diet as a Paleolithic species.

Since the end of the Paleolithic era, some foods that people rarely or never consumed have become the basis of the diet.

With the invention of agriculture and animal husbandry and about 10,000 years ago, during the Neolithic Revolution, people began to eat large amounts of dairy products, legumes, cereals, alcohol and salt.

From the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century, industrial Revolution, which led to the development of mechanized food production and intensive livestock farming techniques that made possible the production of refined grains, refined sugars and vegetable oils, and the higher-fat meat products that became the mainstay of the Western diet.

This change has led to a deterioration in the nutritional characteristics of the human diet compared to the Paleolithic era, namely: glycemic load, fatty acid composition, macronutrient composition, micronutrient saturation, sodium-potassium ratio, and fiber content.

Changes in diet are considered risk factors for the development of many diseases, the so-called. "diseases of civilization" prevalent in the modern Western world, including obesity, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, autoimmune diseases, colon cancer, myopia, acne, depression, and diseases associated with vitamin and mineral deficiencies.

When reprinting materials, an active link to wwww.site is required!
Mia especially for the site

In a somewhat simplified form, the evolution of nutrition of ancient primates, hominids and ancient people can be represented as follows. The oldest primates of the Paleocene (66-58 million years ago) occupied one of the ecological niches characteristic of insectivores. By the end of the Paleocene, approximately 58 million years ago, many species of primates already had a dentofacial apparatus adapted for a mixed diet, which included, in addition to insects, also fruits, foliage, seeds and fruits.

A series of global cooling events between 20 and 5 million years ago led to a reduction in the area of ​​tropical forests. Australopithecines, who found themselves four million years ago in the open spaces of savannas, were omnivorous creatures, and the path to food specialization was already cut off for them: evolution cannot reverse. Meanwhile, the structure of the dentofacial apparatus, the peculiarities of the biochemistry of digestion and the method of movement allowed the most ancient australopithecines to feed both on the plains of the arid savanna and, possibly, on the trees of savanna umbrella forests.

A serious challenge was the alternation of wet and dry seasons characteristic of savannas. During the wet season, plant food (fruits, nuts, seeds) was abundant, but the dry season (lasting from two and a half to ten months in the savannas) was a hungry time for the herbivorous bipedal primates. During this period, there was a need to develop new food resources, one of which was meat, although its production required large energy costs.

The oldest representatives of the genus Homo continued this evolutionary strategy. They significantly expanded their habitat, which should have led to an increase in diet diversity. Apparently, underground parts of plants: tubers, bulbs, roots became increasingly important in the diet of ancient people. This was another (besides carrion) group of products for which competition for possession among large mammals was not as fierce as in other niches. Primates, armed with tools adapted for digging, could successfully resist various types of wild pigs in the struggle for underground “carbohydrate concentrates”.

But the most significant differences between the diet of Homo erectus and Australopithecines was the constant use of fire. It is difficult to say when hominids began to use fire. Judging by some data, this could have happened as early as 1.4 million years ago, and there is no doubt that the regular use of fire by humans dates back at least 750 thousand years. Fire opened up new possibilities for cooking. Roasting and boiling increase the nutritional value of many plant foods by breaking up the cellulose, which is inedible to humans. Heat treatment allows you to remove toxic substances contained in the tubers of many plants or significantly weaken their effect. Smoking and roasting help prepare food for long-term storage.

Reconstruction of the diet of the Paleolithic population of western Europe during the last (Würm, approximately 15 thousand years ago) glaciation showed that Cro-Magnon communities did not lack plant food: it accounted for approximately 65% ​​of calories consumed. Hunter-gatherers of the time were characterized by the consumption of a wide range of wild plants and animals (a similar trend continued in subsequent millennia). This ensured not only a variety of flavors in the food, but also a sufficient supply of vitamins, minerals and trace elements. Most of the protein was of animal origin.

In general, the consumption of fiber, calcium and vitamin C was significantly higher than that of a modern city dweller, and the intake of sodium was significantly less. Much less sugar was consumed: they were available only in natural form (with berries, fruits). Alcohol consumption was very low. Animal milk and dairy products were absent from the diet of Upper Paleolithic man, but breastfeeding a child continued for a long time: two to three years.

Animal proteins and fats were supplied by mammals, small vertebrates, fish, insects, and invertebrates. The content of subcutaneous fat in the body of wild herbivores is on average 7 times less, and polyunsaturated fatty acids are almost five times higher than in domestic representatives of the same species. Accordingly, even significant consumption of animal fats by Paleolithic people entailed a lower risk of developing atherosclerosis than in modern Americans or Europeans.

Of course, this reconstruction gives an idea of ​​the nutrition of representatives of populations that have adapted to the conditions of only one of the biotopes. By the Upper Paleolithic era, people inhabited the most ecologically diverse regions. The diet of the inhabitants of the tropics and subtropics must have differed significantly from that characteristic of the populations of the dry periglacial steppes of western and central Europe. The availability of products of river and sea origin had a significant impact.

The transition from hunting and gathering (the appropriating economy) to agriculture (the producing economy) led to perhaps the most significant changes in nutrition in the entire history of the genus Homo. It is especially important that this transition occurred in an exceptionally short period of time in evolutionary terms, on the order of only ten thousand years. The advantages that the “Neolithic Revolution” provided (first of all, the ability to feed one or even two orders of magnitude more food per unit of territory) significantly outweighed its negative consequences - even such as a general deterioration in the health of the population.

The transition to agriculture, and as a result to predominantly carbohydrate foods and consumption of large quantities of grains, led to an imbalance in nutritional balance and, as a consequence, to vitamin deficiencies, iron deficiency anemia and a slowdown in growth processes in children. The state of health of the oral cavity organs sharply deteriorated, caries spread, and the frequency of lifetime tooth loss increased.

In connection with the growth of sedentism, the nutrition of Neolithic man became increasingly dependent on local food sources. For example, according to studies of the Neolithic population of the Iberian Peninsula, representatives of groups that lived only 10 km from the sea coast (essentially two hours away - the same time expenditure as many Muscovites during their daily commute to work!) consumed algae , shellfish, crabs decreased sharply.

The transition to much softer, thermally processed (boiled, baked) and carbohydrate foods has changed the direction of selection in relation to the morphological and anatomical features of the structure of our body. Powerful chewing muscles no longer provided advantages. Neolithic people are characterized by a decrease in the size of the jaws and the facial part of the skull as a whole. At the same time, the arrangement of teeth in the jaw became more crowded, which increased the risk of developing caries.

It can be assumed that the biochemistry, physiology and anatomy of the digestive tract organs changed. Unfortunately, they are not preserved like bone remains, and we have no direct evidence of such evolution. But, probably, it was in the Neolithic that differences in the functioning of the stomach became established among representatives of groups focused primarily on protein-lipid or carbohydrate diets.

Only nine plant species form the basis of nutrition for modern societies that rely primarily on agricultural products. Four of them (wheat, rice, potatoes, corn) account for approximately 75% of food consumed (the other five are sorghum, sweet potatoes, barley, millet and cassava). Eighty percent of the animal food supply of the modern world's population comes from beef and pork, the remaining 20% ​​comes from chicken and meat from sheep, goats, buffalo and horses.

From the book “Food of People” by A.I. Kozlov.

Human evolution is a gradual process, beginning several million years ago from our closest ancestors (who in turn evolved from other primates approximately 7 million years ago) to modern Homo habilis.

For the first time, we began to resemble modern humans (Homo habilis and Homo erectus) 2-3 million years ago, when truly human habits began to appear in their rudimentary form, such as hunting, gathering, the use of spears, forts, and stone tools. According to anthropologist Richard Wrangham, our ancestors began to use and control fire around the same period.

The first representatives of Homo sapiens, anatomically similar to modern humans, appeared 400,000 years ago in Africa. All this time, our ancestors evolved slowly and gradually, and only 10,000 years ago we began to develop rapidly and radically. This entire period, from the appearance of Homo habilis until the agricultural revolution, is called the Paleolithic in archeology. The Paleolithic represents 99.9% of our evolution.

As our primate ancestors evolved, so did their diet. Developing humanity moved from simple to more complex, from eating plants and insects while living in trees, to wearing skins and hunting large animals. A caveman dressed in the skins of the animals he killed - this is how we most often imagine our ancient ancestors. The food was varied as much as possible in order to get the maximum amount of nutrients and energy. In order to survive, people stored and passed on knowledge about a large variety of plants (herbs, berries and fruits, roots, etc.), animals, mushrooms and minerals. However, the amount of a certain type of food eaten depended on a number of factors, such as geographic location and climate. However, based on a number of studies, it can be assumed that our ancestors preferred animal food as a staple food whenever possible. People received 45-65% of their energy from animal food. Perhaps people preferred animal foods due to their high calorie content, which was necessary to support the normal functioning of a large brain (which is typical for humans). Of course, carbohydrates made up a significant part of the diet - roots, stems, leaves, fruits, bark. But all this, in its properties, is very different from the carbohydrate-rich food that we eat today (bread, pasta, potatoes, sugar, etc.).

At the moment, there are very few places on earth where you can still find an example of the Paleolithic diet, while still living examples are the Kung peoples in Africa, the Eskimos in the Arctic and the Yanomamo and Ache peoples in South America. When the first Europeans arrived in North America, they were surprised to note the physical health and vitality of the local population, which did not suffer from chronic diseases characteristic of the more “advanced” European civilization. Studies of modern Yanomamo hunter-gatherers show that adherence to Paleolithic dietary principles protects against diseases characteristic not only of Western culture but perhaps of all modern civilization (Truswell 1977, Neel 1977, Salzano and Callegari-Jacques 1988).

About 10,000 years ago, truly revolutionary changes began to occur to humanity. Quite unexpectedly, we began to experiment with the domestication of wild animals and plants. People began to gather in sedentary communities, gradually moving away from the usual type of existence - hunting and gathering. The first wave of these changes swept across Africa and the Middle East, a little later India and China, and much later Mesoamerica and Northern Europe. Animals such as the dog, pig and cow were the first creatures to be domesticated by man. In addition, people experimented with edible plants, selecting and retaining those that were best in taste and other beneficial qualities (primitive selection). After a person mastered the cultivation of vegetables, the most significant moment in the agricultural revolution came, this is the cultivation of grain crops, cereals and legumes. Crushing, soaking, fermenting and fire-cooking the seeds of various herbs including wheat, barley and flax unexpectedly provided man with a food rich in energy and protein. The relatively stable climate of that period allowed sedentary peoples to plan with confidence the harvest and quantity of crops and no longer depend on hunting, the result of which was often unpredictable. Thus, for better or worse, humanity began to change. Gradually, food became less varied, as our Neolithic ancestors worked tirelessly from morning to evening: plowing and sowing the land, growing and harvesting crops. This mode took up a lot of time and effort, not allowing me to be distracted by anything else. Stored food began to be of greater value in early human society, and those who had more supplies were in a more advantageous position than those whose supplies were not so large. This state of affairs contributed to the division of society into classes, where the top or elite controls the lower - the working class by controlling food supplies and the means of their production (we can see the same thing today). Since then, many empires have risen and fallen, but the diet of the working class has remained almost unchanged until very recently. The diet of the peasants of that time, with a predominance of grains and legumes, was, although not the most harmful to health, still far from optimal. According to archaeological research, this eating pattern likely contributed to the development of both physical and mental chronic diseases. Feeling this (perhaps even on a subconscious level), traditional peoples tried to return animal products to their diet, but since slaughtering livestock for meat was an extremely expensive way to obtain food, people used milk and eggs much more often. Unlike today, previously there was no division of products into refined (refined and processed) and unrefined, since there were no technical means to do this. For example, rice in Asia became a staple food, and was almost always eaten unpeeled, except in those cases where they could afford to pre-clean it for money (rice in those days was cleaned by pounding and grinding in sand). But even after such cleaning, the rice was still very different from the fluffy white rice that all of Asia, and the rest of the world, now eats.

Poor hygiene and hard work throughout their lives took their toll, but in general the peasants were healthier compared to the upper class, whose representatives suffered from chronic diseases characteristic of our time. Such a strange, at first glance, difference in health was due to the fact that the poor simply could not afford the food that rich people ate, mainly purified - refined food. The sharp difference between the diseases of the rich and the diseases of the poor existed until the so-called Green Revolution of the 20th century began, when agriculture acquired an industrial scale and technical capabilities appeared to increase the shelf life of products. Taste and smell enhancers, as well as food preservation, were invented. Thus, that social stratum, which a few generations ago ate very modestly, today has the opportunity to eat foods that in the past were available only to kings and the rich class. This state of affairs has led to developing India having the highest rate of diabetes in the world. All this is due to the high content of refined foods in the daily diet, but just a few decades ago, Indians ate simple and natural food, and diabetes was an extremely rare disease among them.