It is known that Rus' was subjected to constant Medieval Europe

The invasion of Mongol troops into Eastern and Central Europe threatened almost the complete destruction of European civilization. Having conquered all the lands to the west of Mongolia in a negligibly short period by medieval standards, defeating huge armies, razing once rich and considered impregnable cities, the Mongols at the beginning of the 13th century stood on the outskirts of Trieste, having in their hands detailed plans for the invasion of Italy, Austria and Germany What happened next can only be described as a miracle: the Mongol troops turned back. What saved the rest of the frightened Europe from complete ruin?

The Kurultai (military council) of 1235 marked the official beginning of the Mongol campaign to the west. Throughout the next winter, the Mongols prepared for their performance in the upper reaches of the Irtysh. And in the spring of 1236, countless horsemen, huge herds, endless convoys with equipment and siege weapons moved west 14 princes, descendants of Genghis Khan, took part in this grandiose campaign.

The son of Genghis Khan Ogedei sent an army of 150 thousand people to conquer Eastern Europe. His nephew Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was officially appointed commander. In fact, the troops were led by the talented commander Subudai, who, having defeated the Volga Bulgars in December 1237, led his troops further west, crossing the frozen Volga. True, the Mongols first appeared on its shores much earlier, back in 1223, only testing the waters for a future invasion. At the same time, the Polovtsians first turned to the princes of the southern Russian lands for help with a proposal to jointly resist the Mongols.

“The Polovtsians could not resist them and ran to the Dnieper. Their Khan Kotyan was the father-in-law of Mstislav Galitsky; he came to his son-in-law and to all the Russian princes and said: “The Tatars took our land today, and tomorrow they will take yours, so protect us; If you don’t help us, then today we will be cut off, and tomorrow you will be cut off.”

But then their combined forces were defeated on the Kalka River.

And now, 14 years later, the Mongols appeared near the Volga again. In 1237 they crossed it in the middle reaches. Then events developed with amazing speed. Batu was given the task of conquering Rus' in one winter.

The first Russian city on the way of the Mongols was Ryazan. For the residents of Ryazan, the invasion came as a complete surprise. Although they were accustomed to periodic raids by the Cumans and other nomadic tribes, this usually happened in the summer or late autumn, and therefore military operations in the winter brought the Ryazan princes to a standstill. Batu demanded from the city “tithe in everything: in princes, in horses, in people.” Residents of Ryazan refused.

On December 16, the siege began. Ryazan was surrounded on all sides, the city walls were shelled around the clock from stone-throwing machines. And five days later the decisive assault began. The Mongols managed to break through the defenses in several places at once. As a result, the entire Ryazan army and most of the city's residents were brutally destroyed. Having won this victory, the Mongols stood near Ryazan for ten days, plundering the city and neighboring villages and dividing the spoils.

Then Batu sent his troops along the Oka, through Kolomna and Moscow, to Vladimir. The battle for Kolomna became one of the most difficult and bloody for the Russian troops. A descendant of Genghis Khan, Khan Kulkan, died in the battle for Kolomna. It is noteworthy that this was the only case of Genghisid’s death on the battlefield in the entire history of the Mongol conquests.

When Batu approached Moscow, the city was defended by a detachment of the son of Grand Duke Yuri Vladimir and the army of the governor Philip Nyanka. On the fifth day of the siege, Moscow fell and was completely destroyed. Prince Vladimir was captured, and the governor was executed. After the fall of Moscow, a serious threat loomed over the Principality of Vladimir. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, leaving the city to the mercy of fate, fled.

On February 4, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Their small detachment drove up to the walls of the city with an offer to surrender. In response, stones and arrows flew. Then the Mongols surrounded the city and installed throwing machines. They managed to break through the city walls in several places, and on the morning of February 7 the decisive assault began. The princely family, boyars and surviving soldiers and townspeople took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral. They refused to surrender to the mercy of the winner and were burned. Vladimir was taken and ruined.

The very next day after the fall of Vladimir, the Mongols captured Suzdal, and on March 4 they overtook the fleeing Yuri Vsevolodovich, defeating his army near the Sit River. The prince was killed in battle. On March 5, Batu took Tver and besieged Torzhok. Torzhok resisted steadfastly, but after holding out for two whole weeks, it was also taken. Batu's troops had already completely entered the Novgorod lands, but the spring thaw forced them to retreat and move south. Novgorod was saved, and the Mongols moved to Smolensk. But they failed to take Smolensk. Russian regiments met the enemy on the outskirts of the city and drove him back. Then Batu turned northeast and went to Kozelsk. Kozelsk defended for 51 days, but was eventually taken. Batu, having lost many soldiers at its walls, called it an “evil city” and ordered it to be razed to the ground. The result of this long assault was that the Mongols never reached Beloozero, Veliky Ustyug, or Novgorod.

The next year, 1239, Batu’s troops rested in the Don steppes, preparing for new battles. A new campaign began only in 1240. Having captured and plundered Pereyaslavl, Chernigov and other southern Russian principalities, in November Mongol troops appeared at the walls of Kyiv.

“Batu came to Kyiv in heavy force, the Tatar force surrounded the city, and nothing was heard from the creaking of carts, from the roar of camels, from the neighing of horses; The Russian land was filled with warriors.”

The Kiev prince Daniil Galitsky fled, abandoning the city to the governor Dmitry. The Mongols bombarded the city with stone-throwing guns around the clock. When the walls collapsed, their troops tried to break into the city. Overnight, with heroic efforts, the people of Kiev erected a new defensive wall around the Tithe Church. But the Mongols nevertheless broke through the defenses, and after a nine-day siege and assault on December 6, Kyiv fell.

After the destruction of Kyiv, the Mongols devastated Volyn, Galicia and the rest of Southern Rus'.

Consolidating power over the conquered Russian lands, the Mongols wasted no time. They most carefully collected the information they were interested in about Western Europe. And if the Europeans themselves only heard contradictory rumors about the actions of the Mongols, brought mainly by refugees, the Mongols were thoroughly aware of the political, economic and social situation of Europe at that time. And they were already ready for a new war.

To control Russian territories, Subudai left only a 30,000-strong army, assigning 120,000 for the invasion of Central Europe. He understood perfectly well that Hungary, Poland, Bohemia and Silesia, united, could assemble an army much larger in number than his own. In addition, Subudai knew that invading any of these countries could lead to conflict with the others. And most importantly, with the Holy Roman Empire. However, such information obtained by Mongol spies gave hope for significant disagreements between the Pope, the German emperor and the kings of England and France. Therefore, he expected to deal with European countries one by one.

Before the arrival of the Mongols, the states of Eastern Europe were constantly at war with each other. Serbia barely managed to restrain the aggression of Hungary, Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire, while the expansion of Bulgaria was stopped only by complete defeat after the Mongol invasion.

Their troops, spreading terror and panic, rushed across Europe, capturing city after city. When only two Mongol tumens (10 thousand warriors each) reached Silesia in early April 1241, the Europeans believed that the invaders' troops exceeded 200 thousand

The warriors of northeastern Europe, although they believed in the terrible stories that circulated about the Mongols, were nevertheless ready to fight bravely for their land. The Silesian prince Henry the Pious gathered an army of 40 thousand Germans, Poles and Teutonic knights and took a position near Liegnitz. King Wenceslas I of Bohemia, in order to unite with Henry, hastily moved north with a 50,000-strong army.

The Mongols launched their decisive attack when Wenceslas was only two days away. Henry's army fought bravely and stubbornly, but was still defeated, its remnants fled to the west, the Mongols did not pursue them. The northern tumens also fulfilled the task of Subudai - all of northern and Central Europe was conquered.

Their leader Hajdu withdrew the separated Tumen from the Baltic coast and turned south to join the main army in Hungary, devastating Moravia along the way.

Wenceslas's army, which was late for the battle, moved to the north-west to join the hastily recruited detachments of the German nobility. The southern column of the Mongols was no less effective. After three decisive battles, by mid-April 1241, all European resistance in Transylvania was broken. Hungary at that time played a leading military and political role in Eastern Europe. On March 12, the main Mongol troops broke through the Hungarian barriers in the Carpathians. King Béla IV, having received news of the enemy's advance, convened a military council in the city of Buda on March 15 to decide how to resist the invasion. While the council was meeting, the king received a report that the Mongol vanguard was already standing on the opposite bank of the river. Without giving in to panic and taking into account that the advance of the Mongols was restrained by the wide Danube and the fortifications of the city of Pest, the king, at the cost of incredible efforts, gathered almost 100 thousand soldiers. At the beginning of April, he left with an army east of Pest, confident that he would be able to drive out the invaders. The Mongols feigned retreat. After several days of careful pursuit, Béla encountered them near the Sajó River, almost 100 miles northeast of modern Budapest. The Hungarian army unexpectedly quickly recaptured the bridge across Shayo from a small and weak Mongol detachment. Having built fortifications, the Hungarians took refuge on the western bank. From loyal people, Bela IV received accurate information about the enemy's forces and knew that his army was much larger than the Mongolian one. Shortly before dawn, the Hungarians found themselves under a hail of stones and arrows. After a deafening “artillery barrage,” the Mongols rushed forward. They managed to surround the defenders. And after a short time, it seemed to the Hungarians that a gap had appeared in the west, where they began to retreat under the pressure of the attack. But this gap was a trap. Mongols rushed from all sides on fresh horses, slaughtering exhausted soldiers, driving them into swamps and attacking villages where they tried to hide. Literally a few hours later, the Hungarian army was almost completely destroyed.

The defeat of the Hungarians allowed the Mongols to gain a foothold throughout Eastern Europe from the Dnieper to the Oder and from the Baltic Sea to the Danube. In just 4 months, they defeated Christian armies that were 5 times larger than their own. Having suffered a crushing defeat from the Mongols, King Bela IV was forced to hide, finding refuge on the coastal islands of Dalmatia. Later, he managed to restore central power and even increase the power of the country. True, not for long - he was soon defeated by the Austrian Margrave Friedrich Babenberg the Grumpy and never achieved success in the long war with the Bohemian King Ottokart II. That same spring of 1241, the Mongols moved to Poland. At the head of their army were the Batu brothers Baydar and Ordu. They captured the cities of Lublin, Zavichos, Sandomierz, as well as Krakow, although, according to legend, a handful of brave men took refuge in the Krakow Cathedral of St. Andrew, whom the Mongols never managed to defeat.

Then the Mongols invaded the lands of Bukovina, Moldova and Romania. Slovakia, then under Hungarian rule, suffered seriously. In addition, Batu also advanced west to the Adriatic Sea, invaded Silesia, where he defeated the army of the Duke of Silesia. It seemed that the path to Germany and Western Europe was open

In the summer of 1241, Subudai consolidated his power over Hungary and developed plans for invasion of Italy, Austria and Germany. The Europeans' desperate efforts to resist were poorly coordinated and their defenses proved woefully ineffective.

At the end of December, the Mongols advanced across the frozen Danube to the west. Their advance detachments crossed the Julian Alps and headed to Northern Italy, and scouts approached Vienna along the Danube Plain. Everything was ready for the decisive assault. And then the unexpected happened From the capital of the Great Mongol Empire, Karakorum, news came that the son and successor of Genghis Khan, Ogedei, had died. Genghis Khan's law clearly stated that after the death of the ruler, all descendants of the clan, no matter where they were, even 6 thousand miles away, must return to Mongolia and take part in the election of a new khan. So, in the vicinity of the mortally frightened Venice and Vienna, the Mongolian tumens were forced to turn around and move back to Karakorum. On the way to Mongolia, their wave swept through Dalmatia and Serbia, then east through northern Bulgaria.

Ogedei's death saved Europe.

Rus' remained under the Mongol yoke for almost 240 years.

1237 The Mongol invasion of Rus'. They cross the Volga in the middle reaches and invade northeastern Rus'
1237.12.21 Batu's army takes Ryazan; the population was killed, the city was burned
1238.02.07 Siege of Vladimir; the city was stormed, burned, the population exterminated
1238.02.08 Mongols capture Suzdal
1238.03.05 Batu takes Tver, besieges Torzhok, enters the Novgorod lands, but due to muddy roads he stops the offensive. Novgorod remains unharmed
1239 The campaign of the Mongol-Tatars to Ukraine and the Rostov-Suzdal land. Batu's army, uniting with Mongke's troops, remains for a year in the Don steppes
1240 (early summer) Batu plunders Pereyaslavl, Chernigov and other southern Russian principalities
1240.12.06 Kyiv was taken and destroyed; all the inhabitants were exterminated. After the capture of Kyiv, the Mongols devastate Volyn and Galicia and all of Southern Rus'
1240 Russian lands are subject to tribute. "Official" beginning of the yoke, which lasted until 1480
1242 Return of Batu to Mongolia after the news of the death of the Great Khan Ogedei (1241)
1243 Yaroslav, the son of Vsevolod, began to reign in Vladimir. The first trip of the Russian prince (Yaroslav Vsevolodovich) to the headquarters of the Mongol Khan. Yaroslav receives a label (letter) for the great reign from the Khan of the Golden Horde
1257 1259 A census of the Russian population (with the exception of clergy) was carried out by the Mongols to determine the amount of tribute (“exit”) to the Golden Horde. Repeated uprisings of the Slavs against the Mongol oppressors; officials (baskaks) collecting tribute cause particular indignation
1262 Mongol-Tatar “tributers” were expelled from Rostov, Vladimir, Suzdal and Yaroslavl
1270 Khan's label, allowing Novgorod to trade freely in Suzdal land
1289 Mongol-Tatar tributaries were again expelled from Rostov

Question to paragraph 1. What was the main goal of the Mongol conquests?

The main goal was the conquest of the whole world (as Genghis Khan himself bequeathed).

Question to paragraph 1 2. What principalities existed in Rus' at the beginning of the 13th century?

The Old Russian state broke up into Ryazan, Kiev, Chernigov, Polotsk, Galicia-Volyn, Turov, Novgorod-Seversk and many other principalities.

Question to point I 3. Suggest why Batu made his campaign against North-Eastern Rus' in winter.

In winter, he was not disturbed by numerous rivers and swamps, since they were all covered with ice. Moreover, it is along frozen rivers that one can walk through dense forests as if on roads.

Question for point III. Find out what peoples lived in the North Caucasus at that time.

At that time, many of the peoples who live there today lived in the Northern Caucasus: Alans, Dargins, Ossetians and others.

Question to paragraph No. 1. In your notebook, make a chronological table of the main events associated with Batu’s campaigns against Rus'.

December 1237 - the beginning of the invasion, the capture of the Ryazan principality.

February 1238 – fall of Vladimir.

March 5, 1238 - after a two-week siege, Torzhok was taken, but Batu did not go further to Novgorod, but withdrew his troops to the steppes (perhaps Novgorod simply paid him off, as he usually did after the capture of Torzhok, the main route for supplying grain to the republic).

Question for paragraph No. 2. Where did the conquerors meet the most fierce resistance?

The small town of Kozelsk resisted the Mongols for the longest time.

Question to paragraph No. 3. What were the results of Batu’s campaigns on Russian lands?

The lands of the Old Russian state became dependent on the Mongols, while many of them suffered terrible devastation, a large number of people were killed or taken prisoner.

Question for paragraph No. 4. What consequences did Batu’s invasion have for the Russian lands?

Consequences:

Many cities and lands were devastated;

The long Tatar-Mongol yoke began;

The economy and culture took a long time to revive after the invasion;

The Vladimir-Suzdal land strengthened due to refugees from the southern principalities who were fleeing the invasion;

It was Moscow that later gathered the Russian lands around itself, largely thanks to the correct policy towards the Mongol rulers;

Different lands suffered to varying degrees from the Mongols, their political fate later developed differently, because largely as a result of the invasion, processes began that later led to the division of the Old Russian people into Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Question for paragraph No. 5. What, in your opinion, are the main reasons for the victories of Batu’s army?

Main reasons:

The perfection of the Mongolian military machine;

The disunity of Russian forces.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 1. A. S. Pushkin wrote that Western Europe was saved by “torn and dying Russia.” Explain the poet's words.

After the campaign against the Russian principalities, Batu moved to Europe. Judging by his successes in Poland and Hungary, it is clear that the knights, despite all their armor, could not defeat the Mongols. However, too much effort was spent on the Russian lands, and most importantly, time - the struggle for the throne of the Mongols was approaching and Batu hastened to complete the campaign, since he also had the right to this throne. The struggle for power did not allow the Mongols to organize new campaigns. It turns out that if Batu had moved first to Europe, it would have been conquered. But in reality, the Russian lands were devastated, and Europe remained independent.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 2. It is known that Rus' was subjected to constant invasions of its territory by nomadic peoples - the Pechenegs and Polovtsians. How was the Mongol invasion different?

Firstly, neither the Pechenegs nor the Polovtsians had such a perfect military organization. It is worth recalling that the Pechenegs were at one time driven out of their habitat by the Polovtsians, and the Polovtsians, in turn, were conquered by the Mongols. Which clearly shows who had the better army.

Secondly, neither the Pecheneg tribes nor the Polovtsian tribes were ever united into one state. Realizing their relative weakness, the nomads themselves came only for prey; they did not seek to seize lands. All Mongol tribes were united, and this was precisely their strength. Realizing this power, they initially came to conquer the Russian principalities, and not just plunder.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 3. Find out in which region of the Russian Federation the city of Kozelsk is located. Find out what reminds you of the events of 1238 in this city.

Today Kozelsk is located in the Kaluga region. The stone cross on the main square reminds of the heroic defense in the city.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 4. Why, in your opinion, despite heroic resistance, were the Mongols able to conquer Russian lands?

Firstly, at that time the Mongols conquered all the lands they attacked thanks to their perfect military machine. Their conquests were stopped only by the struggle for power. They also suffered a number of major defeats in the Far East, but either a very specific climate intervened there (as in Vietnam), or the failure occurred more at sea than on land (as in the case of Japan). The Russian principalities had no chance of winning thanks to these factors, while without them no one could stop the Genghisid warriors.

In addition, the Mongols were well prepared for the campaign and scouted out everything they needed. In particular, they even reached small rivers to not very significant cities - they clearly selected guides in advance (quite possibly traders who carried their goods to those cities).

While the Russian squads were not ready for the Mongolian battle tactics, and most importantly for the siege engines borrowed from the Chinese (thanks to which Batu took cities in weeks, under the walls of which the princes stood for months during strife).

Secondly, fragmentation also played a big role: the Russian squads did not unite in the face of the Mongol threat. While Batu was ravaging the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the southern princes were inactive. Perhaps they thought that the invasion would end in 1238, that is, it would not affect them. But the trouble turned out to be common.

How and why did Rus' fall under the rule of the Mongol khans?

We can perceive the historical period we are considering in different ways and evaluate the cause-and-effect relationship of the Mongols’ actions. The facts remain unchanged that the Mongol raid on Rus' took place and that the Russian princes, despite the heroism of the city defenders, were unable or unwilling to see sufficient reasons for eliminating internal disagreements, unification and basic mutual assistance. This did not allow the Mongol army to be repelled and Rus' fell under the rule of the Mongol khans.

What was the main goal of the Mongol conquests?

It is believed that the main goal of the Mongol conquests was to conquer all the “evening countries” down to the “last sea.” This was the behest of Genghis Khan. However, Batu’s campaign against Rus' is most likely more correctly called a raid. The Mongols did not leave garrisons; they did not intend to establish permanent power. Those cities that refused to make peace with the Mongols and began armed resistance were destroyed. There were cities, like Uglich, that paid off the Mongols. Kozelsk can be considered an exception; the Mongols dealt with it in revenge for the murder of their ambassadors. In fact, the entire western campaign of the Mongols was a large-scale cavalry raid, and the invasion of Rus' was a raid for the purpose of robbery, replenishing resources, and subsequently establishing dependence with the payment of tribute.

What principalities existed in Rus' at the beginning of the 13th century?

Galician, Volyn, Kiev, Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversk, Smolensk, Novgorod, Ryazan, Murom, Vladimir-Suzdal principalities.

Suggest why Batu made his trip to North-Eastern Rus' in winter

The attack on Rus' was not unexpected. The border Russian principalities knew about the impending invasion. Since the autumn of 1237, Mongol troops were grouped at the borders. I think that the Mongols were waiting for a connection with the units that fought with the Polovtsians and Alans, and also for the land, rivers and swamps to freeze with the onset of the coming winter, after which it would be easy for the Tatar cavalry army to plunder all of Rus'.

Find out what peoples lived in the North Caucasus at that time

During the historical period we are considering, the Western Caucasus was inhabited mainly by the Adygs, to the east of them by the Alans (Os, Ossetians), then by the ancestors of the Weinakhs, about whom there is almost no real news, and then by various Dagestan peoples (Lezgins, Avars, Laks, Dargins, etc. .). The ethnic map of the foothills and partly mountainous regions changed even before the 13th century: with the arrival of the Turkic-Cumans, and even earlier the Khazars and Bulgars, part of the local population, merging with them, became the basis for such nationalities as the Karachais, Balkars, and Kumyks.

Why do you think the Mongols failed to fulfill Genghis Khan's will?

Genghis Khan's will was to conquer all the "evening countries" up to the "last sea." But was Batu’s invasion of Europe to fulfill this will? Maybe yes, maybe not. The main enemy of the Mongols in the west was the Cumans. This is evidenced by the long prehistory of the relationship between these nomadic peoples. It was in pursuit of the Polovtsians who had retreated to Hungary that the Mongols moved further through Galicia, seeking to establish an inviolable western border of their state. First, their ambassadors visited Poland, but were killed by the Poles. Therefore, according to nomadic laws, another war was inevitable. The Mongols passed through Poland, Hungary, and were defeated near Olomouc in the Czech Republic, although today this victory of the Czechs is considered a fiction. The Great Western Campaign ended when Batu's troops reached the Adriatic Sea in 1242. The Mongols ensured the security of their western border, because neither the Czechs, nor the Poles, nor the Hungarians could reach Mongolia: they had neither the desire nor the capabilities for this. The original enemies of the Mongol ulus - the Polovtsy - also could not threaten it: they were driven into Hungary, and their fate turned out to be sad. In addition, at this time the great Khan Ogedei died, which radically changed the situation in the Horde of Khan Batu.

According to another version, it is believed that it was the campaign against Rus' that weakened the forces of the Mongol invasion of Europe, and they simply could not fulfill Genghis Khan’s will.

Questions and tasks for working with the text of a paragraph

1. In your notebook, make a chronological table of the main events associated with Batu’s campaigns against Rus'.

Batu's first campaign against Rus' (1237-1239)

Batu's second campaign against Rus' (1239-1241)

2. Where did the conquerors meet the most fierce resistance?

Kyiv, Kozelsk, Torzhok, Kolomna, Ryazan, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky

3. What were the results of Batu’s campaigns on Russian lands?

As a result of the invasion, a significant part of the population of Rus' died. Kyiv, Vladimir, Suzdal, Ryazan, Tver, Chernigov, and many other cities were destroyed. The exceptions were Veliky Novgorod, Pskov, as well as the cities of Smolensk, Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities. The developed urban culture of Ancient Rus' suffered significant damage.

4. What consequences did Batu’s invasion have for the Russian lands?

The blow dealt to the Russian lands in the middle of the 13th century by the Mongol hordes seriously affected their development. Most of the Russian lands were completely devastated and became dependent on foreign power.

In its socio-economic development, Rus' was significantly thrown back. For several decades, stone construction practically ceased in Russian cities. Complex crafts, such as the production of glass jewelry, cloisonne enamel, niello, grain, and polychrome glazed ceramics, disappeared. The southern Russian lands lost almost their entire settled population. The surviving population fled to the forested northeast, concentrating in the area between the Northern Volga and Oka rivers, where there were poorer soils and a colder climate than in the completely devastated southern regions of Rus'.

Also, Kyiv ceased to be the subject of struggle between various branches of the Rurikovichs and the center of the struggle against the steppe, the institution of “sacraments in the Russian land” disappeared, since the Mongol khans began to control the fate of Kyiv.

5. What, in your opinion, are the main reasons for the victories of Batu’s army?

• Tactics of the Mongols. Pronounced offensive character. They sought to deliver swift blows to the enemy taken by surprise, to disorganize and create disunity in its ranks. If possible, they avoided large frontal battles, breaking up the enemy piecemeal, wearing him down with continuous skirmishes and surprise attacks. For battle, the Mongols lined up in several lines, having heavy cavalry in reserve, and formations of conquered peoples and light troops in the front ranks. The battle began by throwing arrows, with which the Mongols sought to cause confusion in the ranks of the enemy. They sought to break through the enemy's front with sudden attacks, to divide it into parts, making extensive use of enveloping the flanks, flank and rear attacks.
• Weapons and military technologies. A composite bow that nails armor from 300-750 steps, battering and stone-throwing machines, catapults, ballistas and 44 types of fire attack weapons, cast iron bombs with powder filling, a two-jet flamethrower, poisonous gases, dry food storage technologies, etc. The Mongols took almost all of this, as well as reconnaissance techniques, from the Chinese.
• Continuous leadership of the battle. Khans, temniks and commanders of thousands did not fight together with ordinary soldiers, but were behind the line, on elevated places, directing the movement of troops with flags, light and smoke signals, and corresponding signals from trumpets and drums.
• Intelligence and diplomacy. Mongol invasions were usually preceded by careful reconnaissance and diplomatic preparations aimed at isolating the enemy and fanning internal strife. Then there was a hidden concentration of Mongol troops near the border. The invasion usually began from different sides by separate detachments, heading, as a rule, to one previously designated point. First of all, the Mongols sought to destroy the enemy’s manpower and prevent him from replenishing his troops. They penetrated deep into the earth, destroying everything in their path, exterminating the population and stealing herds.

Working with the map

Show on the map the directions of Batu’s campaigns and the cities that offered especially fierce resistance to the conquerors.

Border of Russian lands indicated by a green line

Directions of movement of Mongol troops indicated by purple arrows

Cities indicated by red dots with a blue rim showed the most resistance Mongol conquerors. These are: Vladimir, Pereyaslavl, Torzhok, Moscow, Ryazan, Kozelsk, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Kyiv, Galich, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-Volynsky.

Cities marked with red dots were burned: Murom, Vladimir, Suzdal, Yuryev, Pereyaslavl, Kostroma, Galich, Tver, Torzhok, Volok-Lamsky, Moscow, Kolomna, Pereyaslavl-Ryazansky, Ryazan, Kozelsk, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Kiev, Galich, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-Volynsky.

Studying the document

1. Using the text of the paragraph and the document, prepare a story about the struggle of the defenders of Russian cities with the conquerors.

“Batu came to Kyiv with heavy force, with a great deal of his strength, and surrounded the city, and the Tatar force besieged (the city”). This is how the chronicle text begins about the siege and assault of Kyiv by the Mongol conquerors. Let's try to describe the siege of Kyiv, relying on the Ipatiev Chronicle and other historical sources. It is worth noting that in Rus', despite the Mongol invasion, the struggle of princes for power did not stop, which turned into a great tragedy for the entire Russian people. Princes in Kyiv replaced one another. The powerful Galician prince Daniil Romanovich, having expelled the Smolensk prince Rostislav from Kiev, instructed his governor Dmitry to defend Kyiv from the Mongols, and he himself returned to his principality, where, judging by the available sources, he was not particularly prepared to repel the conquerors.

In the summer of 1240, the Mongols completed preparations for a great campaign, the goal of which was to conquer Western Europe. The losses they suffered in battles with the Volga Bulgarians, Mordovians, Polovtsians, Alans, Circassians, and Rusichs were replenished with fresh forces arriving from the east, as well as with troops recruited from among the conquered peoples. The question of the size of Batu’s army in this campaign is controversial; modern researchers give figures from 40 to 120 thousand.

The first big city on the path of the conquerors was Kyiv, then the largest city in Eastern Europe with a population of 40-50 thousand people. The fortifications of Kyiv were unmatched in Eastern Europe. But they were built in the 10th-11th centuries, in an era when fortresses were taken either by a sudden raid or by a long passive siege. The Kyiv fortifications were not designed to resist an assault using siege engines. In addition, Kyiv had very few defenders. Prince Daniel left only a small part of the squad to defend Kyiv. If all the able-bodied men, plus the boyar squads, had also taken up arms, there would have been five to ten thousand defenders. Against several tumens of the Mongol army with siege weapons, this was a negligible number. Most Kyivans had only spears and axes. In the quality of weapons, in the ability to wield them, in organization and discipline, they, of course, lost to the Mongols, as the militia of a professional army always loses.

The chronicle shows that the townspeople defended themselves actively. For about three months, the Mongols exhausted the Kievites with a siege and prepared for the assault. The chronicle names the area chosen for the attack: “Batu placed vices against the city fortifications near the Lyadskie Gate, for here the wilds (ravines, rough terrain) approached (close to the city).” This site was chosen because there were no steep natural slopes in front of the fortifications. After the walls were destroyed by the vices, the attack began. When the attackers climbed the rampart, a fierce hand-to-hand battle began in the gap. In this battle, Voivode Dmitry was wounded.

Finally, the besieged were driven out of the rampart. The Kievans, taking advantage of the respite, retreated to Detinets and overnight organized a new line of defense around the Church of the Holy Mother of God. The second and last day of the assault has arrived. “And the next day the (Tatars) came against them, and there was a great battle between them. Meanwhile, people ran out to the church and onto the church vaults with their belongings, and the church walls fell down with them from the weight, and so the city was taken by (Tatar) soldiers.”

The Ipatiev Chronicle does not directly speak about the destruction of Kiev and the mass death of its inhabitants, but another chronicle, the Suzdal Chronicle, reports: “The Tatars took Kiev, and St. Sophia they plundered, and all the monasteries, and icons, and crosses, and all the church ornaments, and they took the people they killed young and old with the sword.” The fact of the “great massacre” has been confirmed by archaeological excavations. In Kyiv, the remains of burnt houses of the 13th century were examined, in which lay skeletons of people of different ages and genders, with traces of blows from sabers, spears and arrows. In our time, on the site of one of these mass graves, near the eastern wall of the Church of the Tithes, a gray granite cross has been erected. This is the only monument in Kyiv reminiscent of those tragic events.

2. Formulate the main idea of ​​the document.

3. What weapons are mentioned in the document?

The document talks about vices - stone throwing tools, with the help of which the Mongols destroyed the defensive structures of cities.

We think, compare, reflect

1. A. S. Pushkin wrote that Western Europe was saved by “torn and dying Russia.” Explain the poet's words.

I believe Pushkin believed that the Mongol troops were drained of blood during the invasion of Rus', and this prevented them from completely conquering Europe. Many historians consider this position to be erroneous. There are several reasons for this opinion. Before going to Europe, the Mongols left North-Eastern Rus' and replenished their troops. Their path to Europe passed along the southern borders of Rus', which were already weakened by internecine wars. Only Kyiv offered serious resistance to the horde. The goals of the Mongols in the Western Campaign are also called into question. Perhaps they did not intend to fulfill the behest of Genghis Khan at any cost, but simply ensured the security of their western borders. The completion of Batu's campaign, which reached the Adriatic Sea, is also associated not so much with the weakening of the army, although it was defeated near Olomouc in the Czech Republic, but with the death of the Great Khan Ogedei and the beginning of the internal struggle in the Horde itself. To guess whether the Mongol horde would have had enough strength to wage a war with the states of Western Europe means to speculate on what could or could not have happened.

2. It is known that Rus' was subjected to constant invasions of its territory by nomadic peoples - the Pechenegs and Polovtsians. How was the Mongol invasion different?

The historical wave brings them all:

• in the 10th century, the Pechenegs, who oust the Khazars and spread their power to the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region and Crimea;
• in the 11th century the Polovtsians, who partially assimilate, partially destroy and displace the Pechenegs and take their place;
• in the 13th century the Mongols, who partially destroyed, partially ousted the Polovtsians and had a strong influence on the ruling Russian elite until the end of the 15th century.

The Pechenegs and Polovtsians were exclusively engaged in robbery and the population. The morals of the Mongols were much harsher - they put to death those who violated their laws, they were merciless towards the enemy and fought until they were completely destroyed.

3. Find out in which region of the Russian Federation the city of Kozelsk is located. Find out what reminds you of the events of 1238 in this city.

Today the city of Kozelsk is located on the territory of the Kaluga region. In memory of the events of that heroic defense, today on the central square of Kozelsk there is a stone cross, which is a copy of the cross placed on the mass grave of the city’s dead in 1238.

4. Why, in your opinion, despite heroic resistance, were the Mongols able to conquer Russian lands?

The answer to this question can be formulated very briefly - one man in the field is not a warrior. Without self-awareness as a single people, without mutual assistance and the unification of all lands against a common threat, Rus' was doomed to defeat.

Possible questions during the lesson

Which principality did the Mongols strike first?

The first blow of the horde of the Mongol Khan was struck in December 1237 against the Ryazan principality.

What did Batu demand from the inhabitants of Ryazan land?

Batu sent envoys to the Ryazan people demanding payment of tribute, “a tenth of everything you have in your land.”

What did the Ryazan prince do?

The Ryazan prince refused the ambassadors: “When we are all gone, then everything will be yours.” At the same time, the Ryazan prince turned to the neighboring principalities for help and at the same time sent his son Fyodor to Batu with gifts.

What were the consequences of negotiations with the Mongols?

Batu accepted the gifts, but put forward new demands - to give princely sisters and daughters as wives to his military leaders, and for himself he demanded the wife of Prince Fyodor’s son Eupraxia. Fedor responded with a decisive refusal and, together with the ambassadors, was executed.

Who led the defense of Moscow?

The defense of Moscow was led by Voivode Philip Nyanka.

Who led the defense of Vladimir?

The defense of Vladimir was led by governor Pyotr Oslyadyukovich.

What weapons did the Mongols use when storming cities?

When storming cities, the Mongols used battering rams and stone-throwing machines.

Which Vladimir prince tried to unite forces and repel the conquerors?

After the fall of Ryazan, the Vladimir Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich went north to gather an army.

What are the results of this battle?

Prince Yuri underestimated the Mongols, and his army was defeated in March 1238. Prince Yuri died in battle. The throne was taken by his brother Yaroslav Vsevolodovich.

Describe the heroic defense of Kozelsk

Batu's horde approached Kozelsk, whose residents refused to surrender and decided to defend the city. The defense of the city lasted 7 weeks. Then the Mongols used their favorite tactics - after the next assault they began to pretend to be a stampede. The city's defenders left the city and were surrounded. All the city's inhabitants were killed and the city was destroyed.

How did Novgorod manage to avoid the fate of many other centers of Rus'?

The Mongols did not reach 100 versts to Novgorod. The city was well fortified and had well-trained troops, but the Mongol army was exhausted and did not have sufficient supplies of fodder for horses.

Why did the Mongols decide to “turn the heads of their horses to the south”?

The battles with the Novgorodians could drag on, and the Mongol cavalry would have to operate in conditions of spring thaw in a wooded and swampy area. After much deliberation, Batu ordered to “turn the muzzles of the horses to the south,” and the horde went to the Don steppes rich in pastures and spent the entire summer of 1238 there.

Why did Batu call Kozelsk an “evil city”?

Perhaps the city of Kozelsk became “evil” because 15 years ago before this invasion, it was Mstislav, the prince of Chernigov and Kozelsk, who became involved in the murder of the Mongol ambassadors, which, in accordance with the concept of collective responsibility, made the city the object of revenge. Or perhaps Batu was enraged by the fierce resistance of the city, which held out steadfastly and for a long time, and during the siege Batu’s army suffered heavy losses. By the way, during the seven-week siege, none of the Russians came to the aid of this city.

Which cities of North-Eastern Rus' did the Mongols later raid?

Later, the Mongols raided Murom, Nizhny Novgorod, and Gorokhovets.

Can we call 1237-1241? tragic and heroic time in Russian history?

Yes, this period can be called a tragic and heroic time in the history of Russia. Heroic, because every city, every warrior fought bravely. Tragic, because many Russian cities were destroyed, troops were defeated, and the inhabitants of the settlements were either killed or taken prisoner. But the main tragedy, in my opinion, is that the entire past history of Rus' did not teach the Russians that no matter how brave the warriors are, without the unity of all Russian lands they are weak. The Russians not only weakened their positions through civil strife, but also did not want to unite even in the presence of a threat.

Why did Batu manage to conquer most of the Russian lands?

Batu managed to conquer most of the Russian lands, because every principality, every city fought only for itself. One by one they were all captured, and the troops were defeated.

Christians and Muslims considered each other mortal enemies and equally hated Jews. But these three cultures emerged from the same Hellenistic and Semitic traditions; they all recognized the Bible as a holy book, prayed to one God, and the educated elite sought to expand their horizons by exchanging achievements in humanitarian and technical knowledge. Things were completely different with the Mongols. They had nothing in common with Christian traditions, and it was probably for this reason that the inhabitants of the Christian world did not take them any seriously, except, of course, for those who, by misfortune, found themselves in their path.

The Mongols were the last nomadic Central Asian people to descend upon the agricultural and urban civilizations of Eurasia; but they acted much more decisively and over immeasurably larger areas than any of their predecessors, starting with the Huns. In 1200, the Mongols lived between Lake Baikal and the Altai Mountains in Central Asia. These were illiterate pagans, traditionally exceptionally skilled warriors. A cruel hierarchy was preserved in the social structure: at its top level there was an “aristocracy” (owners of herds of horses and livestock), to which numerous semi-dependent steppe inhabitants and slaves were subordinate. In general, the Mongols were not much different from other tribes that lived in the vastness of Inner Asia. For almost a thousand years, these peoples - from the Huns to the Avars, Bulgars and various Turkic tribes - demonstrated their ability to defeat the armies of more advanced peoples and create vast amorphous empires or possessions, provided they did not stray too far from the familiar geographical and climatic conditions of the Eurasian steppes .

At the very beginning of the 13th century. An exceptionally gifted leader, Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), managed to unite the Mongol tribes and then spread his power to the east and west. There is no reason to believe that the Mongols began to move under the influence of some climate changes that had a detrimental effect on grazing. Under the command of Genghis Khan there was an excellently organized and disciplined army; it consisted of mounted archers and had exceptional mobility combined with superior long-range weapons. Genghis Khan himself was distinguished by his amazing ability to adapt to unfamiliar conditions and willingly used Chinese and Muslim-Turkic “specialists” in his army.

He organized an excellent “informant service”, and a lot of information was brought to him by merchants of all nationalities and religions, whom he encouraged in every possible way. Genghis Khan also succeeded in the cool, thoughtful use of diplomatic measures and military force according to the circumstances. All these qualities allowed Genghis Khan, his gifted sons, grandsons and military leaders to continuously win victories over yet another enemy. Beijing fell in 1215, although it took the Mongols another fifty years to conquer all of China. The Islamic states east of the Caspian Sea with their rich cities of Bukhara and Samarkand (1219–1220) were conquered much more quickly. By 1233, Persia was conquered and, at about the same time, Korea at the other end of Asia. In 1258 the Mongols took Baghdad; At the same time, the last caliph from the Abbasid dynasty died. Only the Mamelukes managed to defeat the Mongol detachment in Palestine (1260), thereby protecting Egypt from the Mongol invasion. It was a victory comparable to the victory of Charles Martel over the Arabs at Tours and Poitiers, for it marked a turning point in repelling the wave of invasion.

Between 1237 and 1241 the Mongols invaded Europe. Their onslaught, as in Asia, was cruel and terrifying. Having devastated Russia, Southern Poland and a large part of Hungary, in Silesia they destroyed an army of German knights (1241) near the city of Liegnitz (Legnitz), west of the Oder River. Apparently, only problems associated with the choice of Genghis Khan's successor forced the Mongol leaders to turn east after this victory.

Meanwhile, the great rulers of Western Europe - the emperor, the pope and the kings of France and England - were busy sorting out relations and, not taking the Mongol threat seriously, consoled themselves with the reassuring thought that Genghis Khan was the legendary John the Presbyter, or made tempting plans to convert the khan to Christianity. Saint Louis even tried to negotiate with the Mongols about joint actions against Muslims in Syria. The Mongols were not particularly impressed and showed no interest. In 1245, the khan declared to the papal envoy: “From sunrise to sunset, all lands are subject to me. Who would do such a thing against the will of God?”

Can we say that Western and Southern Europe simply escaped the Mongol invasion by luck? Probably possible. The Russians were much less fortunate, and for almost 300 years they were forced to bear all the hardships of the Mongol yoke. However, it is also likely that the Mongols had exhausted their conquering capabilities. Their operations in the tropical rainforests and jungles of Vietnam and Cambodia were unsuccessful, and naval expeditions against Japan and Java ended in complete failure. Although the Mongols had very advanced siege technology, their mounted armies were unlikely to be able to gain the upper hand in Western Europe, with its hundreds of fortified cities and castles. This is doubtful to say the least.

The first two generations of Mongol leaders and their successors were overwhelmed by a passion for profit and domination. But even for this last purpose a developed administrative organization was needed, and from the very beginning the Mongols had to adopt such an organization from the conquered but more developed peoples and appoint experienced Chinese, Persians, Turks and Arabs to important posts.

The religious beliefs of the Mongols could not compete with the great world religions - Buddhism, Islam, Judaism and Christianity. Not surprisingly, they tried not to delve too deeply into this issue: Marco Polo and other Western travelers who visited the court of the Great Khan noted the Mongols' tolerance and open respect for the religion of strangers. However, even those modern historians who weigh the Mongols can hardly find any justification for their conquests, unless the caravan trade between East and West became more secure, and the Mongol subjects lived in conditions pax mongolica– peace that came after the destruction of all real and potential opponents. Indeed, the Mongol conquests were very reminiscent of those of the Romans, about which their British contemporary said: “They turn everything into a desert and call it peace.”

In the XIV century. rulers of various parts of the Mongol Empire adopted Buddhism or Islam; this meant that in fact they were conquered by the cultures in which they lived - Chinese, Persian or Arab. With the decline of the great caravan routes, which gave way to sea routes, and with the development of new military-commercial states, the era of the great continental nomadic empires came to an end. They gave nothing to humanity and left behind a bad memory everywhere. But the indirect results turned out to be enormous: successive invasions of nomads provoked the migration of other, more sedentary peoples, who in turn defeated the previous ancient civilizations. This is exactly what happened in the 4th–5th centuries. happened with the Germanic tribes that destroyed the Roman Empire in the West, and then with some Turkic tribes that finally destroyed what remained of its eastern part.