1. What is matter? What is experience? The first of these questions is constantly pestered by idealists, agnostics, and including Machists, to materialists; with the second – materialists to Machists. Let's try to figure out what's going on here. Avenarius says on the issue of matter: “Inside

Tethys divides Pangea into two continents - Laurasia and Gondwana...
taken from Wiki....
Te;thys (https://ru.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/() German-language form of the name of the Greek goddess of the sea Tethys - Greek ;;;;;, Tethys) - an ancient ocean that existed in the Mesozoic era between the ancient continents of Gondwana and Laurasia. Relics of this ocean are the modern Mediterranean, Black and Caspian seas
Background

Systematic discoveries of fossils of marine animals from the Alps and Carpathians in Europe all the way to the Himalayas in Asia have been explained since ancient times by the biblical story of the Great Flood. Advances in geology have made it possible to date marine remains, calling this explanation into question. In 1893, the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess, in his work “The Face of the Earth,” suggested the existence of an ancient ocean in this place, which he called Tethys after the Greek goddess Tethys. However, based on the theory of geosynclines, until the seventies of the 20th century, when the theory of plate tectonics was established, it was believed that Tethys was only a geosyncline and not an ocean. Therefore, for a long time, Tethys was called in geography a “system of reservoirs”; the terms Sarmatian Sea or Pontic Sea were also used.
A huge gulf, called the Tethys Sea, jutted into the supercontinent between the future Eurasia and Australia. The giant ocean that washed Pangea is called Panthalassa. Pangea split approximately 150-220 million years ago into two continents.
Modern representations
Neo-Tethys Sea in the Paleogene Epoch (Rupelian Oligocene Age, 33.9-28.4 million years ago)
Paratethys in the Neogene era (Miocene, 17-13 million years ago)

Tethys existed for about a billion years (850 to 5 million years ago), separating the ancient continents of Gondwana and Laurasia, as well as their derivatives. Since continental drift was observed during this time, Tethys constantly changed its configuration. From the wide equatorial ocean of the Old World, it turned into the western bay of the Pacific Ocean, then into the Atlantic-Indian channel, until it broke up into a number of seas. In this regard, it is appropriate to talk about several Tethys oceans:

Prototethys (Precambrian). According to scientists, Prototethys was formed 850 million years ago as a result of the split of Rodinia, was located in the equatorial zone of the Old World and had a width of 6-10 thousand km.

Paleotethys 320-260 million years ago (Paleozoic): from the Alps to Qinling. The western part of Paleotethys was known as Rheicum. At the end of the Paleozoic, after the formation of Pangea, Paleotethys was an ocean-bay of the Pacific Ocean.

Mesotethys 200-66.5 million years ago (Mesozoic): from the Caribbean Sea basin in the west to Tibet in the east.

Neo-Tethys (Paratethys) 66-13 million years ago (Cenozoic). After the split of Gondwana, Africa (with Arabia) and Hindustan began to move north, compressing Tethys to the size of the Indo-Atlantic Sea. 50 million years ago, Hindustan wedged itself into Eurasia, occupying its modern position. The African-Arabian continent also merged with Eurasia (in the area of ​​Spain and Oman). The convergence of the continents caused the rise of the Alpine-Himalayan mountain complex (Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Zagros, Hindu Kush, Pamir, Himalayas), which separated the northern part of the Tethys - Paratethys (the sea “from Paris to Altai”).

Sarmatian Sea (from the Pannonian Sea to the Aral Sea) with the islands of Crimea and the Caucasus 13-10 million years ago. The Sarmatian Sea is characterized by isolation from the world ocean and progressive desalination. About 10 million years ago, the Sarmatian Sea restored its connection with the world ocean in the Bosporus Strait area. This period was called the Meotic Sea, which was the Black and Caspian Seas, connected by the North Caucasus channel. 6 million years ago the Black and Caspian Seas separated. The collapse of the seas is partly associated with the uplifting of the Caucasus, partly with a decrease in the level of the Mediterranean Sea. 5-4 million years ago, the level of the Black Sea rose again and it again merged with the Caspian into the Akchagyl Sea, which evolves into the Absheron Sea and covers the Black Sea, Caspian, Aral and floods the territories of Turkmenistan and the lower Volga region. In fact, the Sarmatian Sea existed 500-300 thousand years ago.

The final “closure” of the Tethys Ocean is associated with the Miocene era (5 million years ago). For example, modern Pamir was for some time an archipelago in the Tethys Ocean.

Notes

1. ; 1 2 In Soviet literature, there is confusion with the names of the Greek goddesses Tethys (Greek ;;;;;, English Tethys) and Thetis (Greek ;;;;;, English Thetis) due to the similar spelling of the names of these goddesses in Latin , with the fact that both goddesses are associated with water, and with the fact that they are relatives. This has led to the fact that even the Great Soviet Encyclopedia erroneously indicates that Tethys is named after Thetis. For more details, see: Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia. Ed. "Soviet Encyclopedia", Moscow, 1988;

Tethys // Encyclop;dia Britannica;
The face of the earth (Das antlitz der erde) By Eduard Suess, Oxford, Clarendon press, 1904-24
2. ;On the shores of the Tethys Ocean
3. ;Disintegration of Mesogea in the Late Riphean and Formation of Pangea at the End of the Paleozoic
4. ;Brief history of the Caspian basin
5. ;Phanerozoic “crisis” from the point of view of Miocene events
6. ;Natural history of the Black Sea
7. Did the Tethys Ocean exist?

Reviews

In the sixties and seventies of the 20th century, thanks to the efforts of many geologists who tried to deepen and substantiate the theory of geosynclines, a lot of systematized geological data related to tectonic processes was collected. In particular, the most important results were obtained as a result of multiple drillings of the ocean floor. However, it turned out that the new data does not support the theory of geosynclines, but the theory of plate tectonics, which is currently generally accepted in geology.

The theory of geosynclines contributed to a significant accumulation of data for subsequent theories and the development of the theory of ore formation and the solution of genetic problems of the formation of mineral deposits...
Tectonic processes... http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Placas_tectonica s_limites_detallados-es.svg/4170px-Placas_te ctonicas_limites_detallados-es.svg.png

Tectonics (from the Greek τεκτονικός, “construction”) is a branch of geology, the subject of study of which is the structure (structure) of the hard shell of the Earth - the earth’s crust or (according to a number of authors) its tectonosphere (lithosphere + asthenosphere), as well as the history of movements that change this structure.

The identification of large-scale tectonic units (moving belts, platforms, etc.) led in the 20th century to the development of tectonics into geotectonics. At the same time, tectonics itself in the old meaning became one of the branches of geotectonics. Sometimes, however, tectonics and geotectonics are considered synonymous.
Heliometry is a science that studies the passage of helium through various media.

Background

A call for expansion of scientific research and practical application of helium was made by V.I. Vernadsky in 1912 in the famous report “On the gaseous respiration of the Earth” at a meeting of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences.

The implementation of heliometric research on an industrial scale took shape only in the early 1950s, when it was necessary to create a raw material base for the “Atomic Project”. Helium, as a product of the alpha decay of uranium, played the role of an indicator of radioactive ore deposits. In the course of large-scale studies carried out only in the USSR, it turned out that natural helium is also an excellent indicator of deep faults. Therefore, in the 1970s, a program began to use heliometry as a geophysical tool for earthquake prediction. The developer and leader of heliometric research in the Soviet Union is Igor Nikolaevich Yanitsky.
Areas of application: structural geological mapping, detailing of deep seismic mapping profiles, control of the location (relative to deep faults) of high-risk objects, primarily nuclear power plants, helium survey. http://helium-scan.narod.ru/ The most significant applied result of helimetry was the compilation by 1975 of the “Map of active tectonic faults in the territory of the USSR”, and later the “International Tectonic Map of Europe”

Eruption of Krakatoa (1883)
An 1889 lithograph depicting the eruption.

The 1883 Krakatoa eruption was a volcanic eruption that began in May 1883 and culminated in a series of powerful explosions on August 26 and 27, 1883, which destroyed most of the island of Krakatoa. Seismic activity on Krakatoa continued until February 1884.

Description and consequences
Changes in the terrain around the volcano before and after the 1883 eruption

The first information that the Krakatoa volcano awoke after a long hibernation (since 1681) came on May 20, 1883, when a huge column of smoke rose above the volcano’s mouth, and the roar of the eruption made windows rattle within a radius of 160 km. A huge amount of pumice and dust was thrown into the atmosphere, which covered the surrounding islands with a thick layer. In the subsequent summer months, the eruption either weakened or intensified. On June 24, a second crater appeared, and then a third.

Starting from August 23, the force of the eruption progressively increased. By 1 p.m. on August 26, the plume of smoke was reported to be rising 17 miles (28 km) high, with large explosions occurring approximately every 10 minutes. On the night of August 27, frequent lightning strikes were clearly visible in the clouds of ash and dust surrounding the volcano, and on ships passing through the Sunda Strait and located several tens of kilometers from the volcano, compasses failed and intense lights of St. Elmo burned.

The culmination of the eruption occurred in the morning hours of August 27, when grandiose explosions were heard at 5.30, 6.44, 9.58 and 10.52 local time. According to eyewitnesses, the third explosion was the most powerful. All explosions were accompanied by strong shock waves and tsunamis that hit the islands of Java and Sumatra, as well as small islands near Krakatoa. Huge amounts of dust and volcanic ash were released into the atmosphere, which rose in a thick cloud to a height of 80 km and turned day into night in the area adjacent to the volcano, up to the city of Bandung, located 250 km from the volcano. The sounds of explosions were heard on Rodrigues Island off the southeast coast of Africa at a distance of 4,800 km from the volcano. Later, according to barometer readings in different places around the world, it was established that infrasonic waves caused by the explosions circled the globe several times.

After 11 a.m. on August 27, the volcano’s activity weakened significantly; the last relatively weak explosions were heard at 2.30 on August 28.

A significant part of the volcanic structure scattered within a radius of up to 500 km. This range of expansion was ensured by the rise of magma and rocks into rarefied layers of the atmosphere, to a height of up to 55 km. The gas-ash column rose into the mesosphere to a height of over 70 km. Ash fall occurred in the eastern Indian Ocean over an area of ​​over 4 million km². The volume of material ejected by the explosion was about 18 km³. The force of the explosion (6 points on the eruption scale), according to geologists, was no less than 10 thousand times greater than the force of the explosion that destroyed Hiroshima, that is, it was equivalent to the explosion of 200 megatons of TNT.

As a result of the explosions, the entire northern part of the island completely disappeared, and three small parts remained of the former island - the islands of Rakata, Sergun, and Rakata-Kechil. The surface of the seabed rose slightly, and several small islands appeared in the Sunda Strait. Based on sounding results, a crack about 12 km long was discovered east of Krakatoa

A significant amount of volcanic ash remained in the atmosphere at altitudes of up to 80 km for several years and caused intense colors of the dawns.
The tsunami raised by the explosion up to 30 m high led to the death of about 36 thousand people on the neighboring islands, 295 cities and villages were washed into the sea. Many of them, before the tsunami approached, were probably destroyed by the shock wave, which felled equatorial forests on the coast of the Sunda Strait and tore roofs off houses and doors off their hinges in Jakarta, 150 km from the disaster site. The atmosphere of the entire Earth was disturbed by the explosion for several days.

Bibliography
Self, Stephen & Rampino, Michael R. (1981). "The 1883 eruption of Krakatau". Nature 294(5843):699–704. DOI:10.1038/294699a0 . Bibcode: 1981Natur.294..699S.
Simkin, Tom and Richard S, Fiske (editors); Krakatau, 1883--the volcanic eruption and its effects (1983) Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press.ISBN 0-87474-841-0
Symons, G.J. (ed); The Eruption of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena (Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society) London (1888)

Verbeek, Rogier Diederik Marius (1884). "The Krakatoa eruption". Nature 30(757):10–15. DOI:10.1038/030010a0 . Bibcode: 1884Natur..30...10V

Krakatoa is a typical stratovolcano, so it always erupted accompanied by powerful explosions and emissions of huge amounts of ash. The study of the volcano and surrounding areas has established traces of powerful prehistoric eruptions. According to volcanologists, one of the most powerful eruptions occurred in 535. This eruption led to global climatic consequences on Earth, which was noted by dendrochronologists who studied the growth rings of ancient trees in different areas of the planet. According to some assumptions, this eruption, accompanied by the collapse of a large section of the surface, formed the Sunda Strait, separating the islands of Java and Sumatra.

The most famous eruptions of Krakatoa in the historical period took place in 1680 and 1883. The last eruption practically destroyed the island on which the volcano was located...
1883 eruption

Main article: Eruption of Krakatoa (1883)

In 1883, a catastrophic eruption occurred that destroyed most of the island.
A significant part of the volcanic structure scattered within a radius of up to 500 km. This range of expansion was ensured by the rise of magma and rocks into rarefied layers of the atmosphere, to a height of up to 55 km. The force of the explosion (6 on the eruption scale) was no less than 10 thousand times greater than the force of the explosion that destroyed Hiroshima.
After the explosion, three small parts remained of the island - the islands of Rakata, Sergun, and Rakata-Kechil.

Problem of 535: explosion of the Proto-Krakatoa supervolcano...
eruption of the Hawaiian volcano...Kalauea...
http://info.wikireading.ru/42846
100 Great Mysteries of Archeology
Volkov Alexander Viktorovich
The Byzantine Empire and the history of an unknown volcano

The Byzantine Empire and the history of an unknown volcano

Volcanic eruptions in remote areas of the planet have more than once influenced the fate of Europe, bringing considerable disasters. Sudden cold snap, food shortage, hunger - these are the terrible gifts of the fiery element. According to the hypothesis of the British journalist David Case, however, disputed by historians, the death of the ancient world was also predetermined by climate changes observed in 535-536 AD. They were allegedly caused by a huge volcanic eruption somewhere outside the then ecumene. It was as if the Lord’s punishments fell upon the world for no apparent reason, shaking kingdoms, destroying and confusing nations. From the point of view of geographers, there is nothing implausible in this hypothesis...

Emperor Justinian with his courtiers. Mosaic from the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna

What makes us talk about the catastrophe of 535-536?

“When he [Justinian] ruled the Roman [Byzantine] Empire, many different evils befell it; some stubbornly attributed them to the presence and malice of the evil spirit that was with him, while others said that God hated his deeds and turned his face away from the Roman Empire, giving it over to the destruction of bloody demons,” wrote the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea about this era (trans. S.P. Kondratieva).

It was a time of “incurable disasters,” Procopius lamented. “The sun emitted scant light almost all year, darkening like the moon, and what was happening resembled an eclipse.” According to another 6th-century historian, John of Ephesus, the darkening of the sun lasted a year and a half. “In all these days... its light was only a pale shadow.” The sun was shining, but it was not warm. Even at noon, it darkened the sky like a dim spot.

Sharp climate changes were observed everywhere at that time. The consequences were massive famine, the resettlement of entire tribes and peoples, especially those engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, as well as wars and a severe socio-economic crisis in a number of states of that time. Professional historians and geographers, despite all the restraint in their assessments, admit that the scale of the natural disasters of 535 was such that they could not help but strike the imagination of the people of that time.
***
Global catastrophe Karakatau...1883...
http://wap.alternativa.borda.ru/?1-5-40-00000403-000-0-0

Never in the entire 6th century was the weather in Britain as bad as in 535 and several subsequent years. In Mesopotamia in those years it often snowed. A famine broke out in Arabia, followed by a flood. In China in 536 there was a drought, and then famine began. In Korea, the years 535-536 were the worst in a century. After severe storms and floods, the country was gripped by drought. Something similar was observed in America.
What could have caused these unprecedented cataclysms?
The “darkening” of the sun was undoubtedly caused by severe atmospheric pollution. Judging by the fact that the “dark sun” was observed in all parts of the ecumene, the pollution was global in nature. So we could be talking about a huge volcanic eruption, in which millions of tons of dust and ash rose into the sky, or even about an asteroid falling to Earth (however, the first version seems more plausible). The eruption obviously occurred on the periphery of the then civilized world, in one of those areas of the planet where people, figuratively speaking, still lived in the Stone Age, because not a single historical source reports a catastrophe that occurred during that period. It may have broken out somewhere in Indonesia. Tambora's example once again reminds us that such an event could take place.
In April 1815, shortly before the Battle of Waterloo, 120-150 cubic kilometers of ash were ejected from the mouth of the Tambora volcano, located on the Indonesian island of Sumbawa. His pillar rose 25 kilometers high. About 10 thousand people died during the eruption. At least 82 thousand more people died from the consequences of the disaster - hunger or disease. For three years after this disaster, the entire globe was enveloped in a shroud of dust and ash particles, reflecting some of the sun's rays and cooling the planet.
This event became the largest volcanic disaster in modern times. Europeans felt its full consequences only the following year, 1816. It went down in the annals of history as “the year without summer.” The weather changed dramatically. The average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere fell by about one degree, and in some areas by even 3-5 degrees. The crop died on the vine. Famine began and epidemics broke out. Large areas of Asia, Europe and North America were affected. Documents from that time report unusually cold summer months, heavy rains, snowfalls and night frosts. “The dawn has risen, the pale day is shining - and all around me there is desolation” - the lines written that year by young Pushkin perfectly convey the impressions of this dull time.
Europe experienced similar vagaries of weather and endless disasters at the end of Antiquity. This is why David Case in his book “Catastrophe. When the Sun Dim,” based on the work of American volcanologist Ken Volets, suggested that the cause of climate cataclysms was the eruption of the famous Krakatoa volcano, which once again showed its vent at the end of the 19th century. There may have been several volcanic explosions that lasted for months.

An analysis of tree rings by dendrochronologist Mike Bailey of the University of Belfast suggests that in 536 oak trees in Ireland had virtually stopped growing; the same thing happened in 542. Similar results were found in studies of tree rings conducted in Sweden, Finland, California and Chile.

In ice samples taken in Greenland and Antarctica by researchers from Denmark, Sweden and the United States, a layer of sulfur of volcanic origin was discovered. Based on these samples, Antarctica experienced acid snowfall for almost four years. It was not possible to accurately date this layer. Time frame: 490-540 AD.

After the disaster, the climate changed dramatically on almost the entire planet, and these changes were disastrous for a civilization based on agricultural production. The consequences of the changes were felt throughout the next century. One can only argue how much they predetermined the political history of that time.

Of course, it would be too bold to claim, following Case, that the spread of Islam in Asia, Africa and Europe is directly related to this natural disaster. It would be too bold to explain all the events of the mid-6th century with a hypothetical volcanic explosion. But droughts, famines, epidemics, invasions of hordes of barbarian steppes from the north and nomadic Arabs from the south undoubtedly crippled the Byzantine Empire, which was experiencing its heyday under Emperor Justinian (527-565). The country, which almost conquered the entire Mediterranean from the barbarians, lost almost half of its territory in the coming decades.
The epidemic that broke out at the same time - and epidemics often accompany volcanic eruptions - sharply reduced the population in Europe. According to Case, the indigenous population of the British Isles had decreased so much that the Anglo-Saxons who moved there ceased to encounter resistance. Then, in 537, almost all of Gaul fell into the hands of the Franks. From this time on, the rise of Paris and the decline of traditional urban centers on the Mediterranean coast began.
Was there a volcano or not? Should we reject this hypothesis out of hand, as historians have preferred to do? Perhaps future research by archaeologists will show whether its author was mistaken, but the climate undoubtedly made history more than once or twice.

Can Merovingian and Carolingian documents be trusted?
Over the course of many centuries, history has been decisively rewritten. After all, historical documents - a scattering of letters on a sheet of paper - can be concocted, manipulated, falsified, corrected, hidden, silenced, lost, invented. Archaeologists, bit by bit restoring the appearance of the past, often discover that the pictures we are familiar with turn out to be someone’s later underpainting. You should be a skeptic in everything. History is certainly material in someone’s hands. The past merges with the unreal, filling us with thoughts. An ancient fake forms the basis of a scientific theory and becomes part of our understanding of the past.

Back in the 1980s, German researcher Horst Fuhrmann noted that many medieval scribes distorted facts, like “George Orwell’s Ministry of Truth.” Over the past years, there has been a lot of evidence of this. We are hovering over a whole abyss of fakes, and their number is increasing.

Most often, pseudo-originals are backdated and signed with the name of a long-dead monarch. Thus, the red-bearded monarch never saw every tenth letter signed by Frederick Barbarossa. Fifteen percent of all documents attributed to the name of Otto I are later forgeries.

The German researcher Mark Merschowski, setting out to verify the authenticity of all official acts of the era of Louis the Pious, successor of Charlemagne, and prepare a critical edition of them, rejected 54 written acts out of 474 he examined in various archives. At the same time, some of them were made rather clumsily, clumsily, while others - and most of them - aroused admiration: everything, right down to the details of the wax seal, to the location of the lace on it, deceived the eye.
Equestrian statue of Charlemagne in Liege
The schemers held Charlemagne himself in special honor. Descendants revered him for his nobility and justice. His name meant a lot, and therefore 35% of all documents with his name were forged by admirers and descendants.
Even more striking is the case with the legacy of the Merovingians, who ruled France at the end of the 5th to the middle of the 8th century. This dynasty strengthened itself on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire at a time of monstrous cultural regression and mass illiteracy, at a time of the collapse of the Roman bureaucracy, which had hitherto strengthened the connection of times...

From the Merovingian era, 194 documents have survived. Some of them were even written on Egyptian papyrus, the material used by ancient scribes. Historians treasured these letters as the apple of their eye, since they, it seemed to them, were the only reliable evidence of the troubled era that reigned in Europe.

However, as it now turns out, the authors of many documents were not “witnesses of the era” at all. The German historian Theo Kolzer, having examined a dozen collections containing the “most ancient” written acts of feudal Europe, admitted that “the share of fakes among them exceeds 60%.” In some cases, he found “fantastic monograms” and altered dates. Other texts, “like a patchwork quilt,” consisted “of authentic and inauthentic fragments.”

Why were deeds of gift, edicts, and capitularies forged? Most often, researchers see “insidious intent.” These false documents granted feudal lords and monasteries lands and immunity privileges, introduced duties, and administered justice. The charm of written evidence increased wealth. Skillfully drawn lines took away pastures and arable land. Truly knowledge was power!

In fairness, it should be noted that some falsifiers had the truth of tradition on their side. “Some acts were produced for the sole purpose of reproducing originals that were lost. As an exception, a fake can tell the truth,” noted French historian Marc Bloch. We emphasize: “as an exception.” In most cases, what was desired was presented as reality and was sanctified by the passage of years and the resounding, never-leaving name of the great monarch, whose immutable authority humbled proud nobles and magnates.

Russian historian A.Ya. Gurevich emphasized the sincerity of the actions of the medieval intellectual, who was ready either to attribute to the late monarch actions that he did not commit, or to obtain from him gifts that were not received during his lifetime: “When correcting the text of the royal charter when rewriting, the monk proceeded from the conviction that the land in question in this document, could not help but be donated to a holy place - a monastery... This was not a forgery in his eyes, but the triumph of justice over untruth.”

In a number of cases, the authors of fakes were inspired not by self-interest, but by vanity. For example, Benzo, abbot of the St. Maximin Monastery in Trier, assured that “he could eat at the emperor’s table at any time” (Kolzer). In another document, he without hesitation called himself the chief confessor of the empress.

In the XII-XIII centuries, the phenomenon of document forgery became a widespread disaster. Historians also know the names of some “especially distinguished” Mkhinators.

Thus, Vibald von Stablo, abbot of the Corvey monastery, developed vigorous activity. He accumulated a whole set of imperial seals, which he used skillfully.

Peter the Deacon, librarian of the Monte Cassin monastery, forged a lot and with inspiration. From his hand came the fictitious lives of saints, the rules of the Benedictine Order, and even—probably created out of sheer “love of art”—a pseudo-antique description of the city of Rome.

As you can see, it was mainly the clergy who were dishonest. This is understandable, because the church had a kind of monopoly on writing. The nobles (not to mention the commoners) often remained ignorant of literacy. Even many of the emperors who ruled the Holy Roman Empire were unable to write their name. Notaries presented them with documents written on their behalf, and monarchs put the “finishing touch” on them, finishing what the scribe started. In this case, even genuine documents certified by the emperor’s hand could not contain at all what he wanted, being a forgery, equipped with a royal facsimile. The names of not only secular, but also church rulers were woven into the web of lies.

However, all these frauds pale in comparison to the most famous forgery of the Middle Ages. We are talking about the “Donation of Constantine,” a forged charter of the 8th century, the origin of which is unclear to this day. According to it, the Roman Emperor Constantine, having moved the capital of the empire to Byzantium, granted the Roman bishop all the western provinces, including Italy. The church received more than 2 million square kilometers of land at once. Now the Pope could lay claim to supreme power throughout the Western world. This forged charter gave rise to long feuds between the popes and the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, which did not subside for centuries.

How many long battles, violent passions, grievances and victories have given rise to such forgeries! How skillfully these unknown scribes played with the destinies of their monasteries, provinces, countries, changing history “retroactively and centuries”! How many more documents will turn into the fruit of vanity or self-interest in the eyes of archaeologists and historians?
The shelves of ancient monasteries contain thousands more dusty parchments. In the cloud of dust disturbed by the scientists, the image of the past melts away as if in a fog. Having been material in someone else's hands, the story we got was pretty much wasted. Fragments of it remain. “Everything else is literature.”

About the project | Sections

100 Great Mysteries of Archeology

Prehistoric world In 2,012,000 BC, humanity almost died? Toba: when the Sun fades Forgotten talents of the Neanderthals The mystery of the death of the Neanderthals The secrets of hunting mammoths Under the sign of the lion man Stone Age painting Gobekli Tepe: the oldest temple in the world Baja and other mega-villages of the Stone Age Beer revolution of the Stone Age Flood broke out in the Black Sea? Medicine of the Stone Age Astronomy of the Stone Age Wooden “Stonehenges” of the Stone Age Along the “Great Flint Road” The main mummy of Europe Secrets of the blossoming Sahara Western Asia and the Middle East The first war in human history? Uruk: Gilgamesh's "Venice"? The secret power of the Hurrians The secrets of the forgotten Qatna The secrets of the ancient library The mystery of the fall of Tire The sacred book of archaeologists - the Bible Moabites, Ammonites and other “evil brothers” New secrets of the Qumran scrolls In the footsteps of the Queen of Sheba The Great Arabian Dam The secrets of the Carthaginian Tophet Egypt The secrets of the Egyptian pyramids The lost tombs of Egypt The secrets of the Hyksos: a conquest that never happened? Egyptian executions Mysteries of Tutankhamun Per-Ramesses: the forgotten house of the pharaoh Pirates of the Sand Sea India, China, Southeast Asia The mystery of the Indus pictograms The dark past of China When did man settle in the Himalayas? White mummies of China Secrets of the tomb of Qin Shi Huang Secrets of the Great Wall of China Secrets of the tomb of Cao Cao Europe and Asia Minor: from the Neolithic to Antiquity Stonehenge awaits its interpreter Heavenly disk from Nebra The mystery of Alpine Mycenae Journey to the islands of the giants Cyprus: the dead and living island of the Stone Age Who ruled Knossos ? Mysteries of the Phaistos Disc In the eternal search for Atlantis “Peoples of the Sea” and the mysteries of the “Dark Ages” of Antiquity Troy after Schliemann Is Kara-Tepe Homeric Troy? Mysteries of Homer Mysteries of the return of Odysseus Perperikon and the lost treasures of the Thracians Forgotten cities of the Etruscans Temple of the goddess Voltumna found? The mystery of the origin of the Etruscans Forgotten pages of the history of the Celts Craters of the Celtic collapse In the kingdom of the legendary Midas Lycia: a country covered with sand City of the Greek tsunami? The secrets of Didymeion, the failed wonder of the world "Star Computer" from the seabed Herculaneum in the shadow of Vesuvius and Pompeii The secrets of the Great Roman Wall In search of the Teutoburg Forest The mystery of the Roman revenge Europe: from Antiquity to the Middle Ages The Byzantine Empire and the history of an unknown volcano Can you trust the documents of the Merovingians and Carolingians? Vikings: “dark people” of the “dark ages” What were runes needed for? Atlantis of the North Sea The Sacred Mummies of Europe America The First People of America The Garden of Eden in Ancient America? The first city of the New World Sechin Bajo from the Casma Valley Geoglyphs of Nazca: earthly, too earthly They were the Olmecs Teotihuacan: a city without a name A water pipeline built by Mayan engineers, and not only... The underground world of Yucatan 2012: the end of the Mayan world will not seem? The mystery of the Mayan collapse Tenochtitlan and the secrets of the Aztecs The forgotten civilization of the Amazon The sacred mountain Samaipata and the secrets of the origin of the Incas Russia The forgotten possessions of the Neanderthals The girl from Denisova Cave When did the center of the world lie in Kostenki? Arkaim and other cities of the Urals The hidden gold of Tuva Ice mounds of the Scythians The Amazons lived near Orenburg? In the city of birch bark letters The forgotten city of Tmutarakan

Did the flood break out in the Black Sea?
http://info.wikireading.ru/42780
its decades prove: and there was a day, and the abyss of heaven opened, and the World Flood began. The waters of the Mediterranean Sea flooded the isthmus that separated it from the Black Sea. A huge wave of water rushed to the east, because the level of the Black Sea - at that time a large freshwater lake - was 120 meters lower than it is now. For the people who inhabited its coast, this event became the greatest catastrophe, which their descendants, who settled from the Carpathians and Germany to Palestine, remembered for several thousand years. This event gave rise to most of the flood myths.
Submersible "Little Hercules"

Is it so? What is the historical background of those events? During the last glaciation - it ended about 12 thousand years ago - a huge amount of water turned into ice. After the end of the Ice Age, the average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere gradually increased by 4-7 °C. Due to the melting of the huge glaciers that bound the north of Eurasia and America, the water level in the World Ocean has increased noticeably. At the same time, the Mediterranean Sea connected with the Sea of ​​Marmara in the Dardanelles region. However, the water in it continued to rise.

Back in the mid-1990s, American geologists Walter Pitman and William Ryan suggested that the story of the biblical flood unfolded on the shores of the Black Sea. It was here that, at the end of the Ice Age, a huge territory occupied by a fertile lowland disappeared under water after a sharp rise in the level of the Black Sea. The latter was explained as follows. A narrow land isthmus in the area of ​​the modern Bosphorus Strait then separated the Black Sea from the Mediterranean. Over time, under the pressure of rising water, this natural dam could not stand it and broke.
Pitman and Ryan described the event as follows: “Every day about 42 thousand cubic kilometers of water fell through this gap. Here, on the Bosphorus, the water boiled and rushed for at least 300 days.” In total, according to scientists, the area occupied by the Black Sea increased by 155 thousand square kilometers during that catastrophic year.

The abrupt change in the Black Sea fauna, which occurred about 8 thousand years ago, helped to date this event. Back in 1993, the Russian research vessel Aquanaut discovered the roots of terrestrial plants, as well as the remains of freshwater mollusks, off the southern coast of Crimea, in sediments at a depth of more than 100 meters. These finds, like some others made earlier by Soviet scientists, convinced that during the Ice Age the Black Sea was a lake lying in a huge depression. After the melting of the glaciers, the waters of the Mediterranean Sea flowed here. Along with these salty waters, numerous marine mollusks rush into the Black Sea.

So, the main idea of ​​Pitman and Ryan did not raise any objections among their colleagues. It's all in the details. How fast did the water flow? Did a real catastrophe occur and in just a few months the Black Sea flooded a vast area? Or did the sea advance for decades, gradually driving people away from their homes? And the places were indeed inhabited.

In 1999 and 2000, US archaeologist Robert Ballard, using submersibles, examined areas of the bottom near the southern coast of the Black Sea, and became convinced that there, at a depth of a hundred meters, people once lived.

During his first expedition, Ballard, using sonar, discovered ancient river deltas, valleys and hills on the seabed. All these territories could have been the area of ​​settlement of Neolithic farmers. Following the example of his Russian colleagues, he collected and examined the shells, which were clearly divided into two groups. “It became clear,” Ballard noted, “that when one type of fauna, the lake fauna, was replaced by another type, the marine fauna, a catastrophe occurred. It was an incredible flood."
In September 2000, the attention of Ballard and his colleagues was drawn to a flooded valley near the Turkish city of Sinop. Here are excerpts from the diary kept by the expedition members:
“4.09.00. At 1.50 am we lowered the Argus apparatus into the water... At the depth we notice the schematic outlines of some object. It is very difficult to distinguish among the black silt lying at the bottom of the sea. We don't want to do anything yet...
6.09.00. At 3.55 am, more than thirty possible search objects are already visible on the sonar screen. They lie on the edge of a vast underwater plain reminiscent of an ancient river valley. Ballard says maybe it's all just garbage. But this is very systematically placed garbage!
9.09.00. Early this morning we lowered the Little Hercules apparatus into the water. “He will carefully examine the areas of the bottom that we noticed on September 4 when working with sonar.”

At 11.52, the underwater vehicle discovered, 20 kilometers from Sinop, a clay shaft and a rectangle made of stones and covered with branches and poles on top. Remains of a stone age hut! The wood is well preserved because at such depths the Black Sea is very poor in oxygen. The clay bank arose because the tiles covering the house became wet over time, turning into a shapeless ridge.
Later, it was possible to see fragments of ceramics lying on the seabed, polished stones with rounded holes, as well as stone tools resembling hammers and chisels. Soil samples - which, by the way, contained traces of charcoal, that is, the remains of a fire that was once lit in front of the house - confirmed that this was a residential building that was flooded in the Neolithic era. As Robert Ballard noted at the end of the expedition, “any myth, including the legend of the flood, contains a genuine grain at its core.”
In 2004, oceanographer from the University of Bern Mark Ziddal, based on the hypothesis of Pitman and Ryan, simulated the failure of the Bosphorus Dam on a computer. In his model, more than 5 cubic kilometers of water rushed through the resulting gap every day. Instead of 300 days, the “flood” lasted almost 33 years until the Black Sea reached its current level.
By the way, in this model, at the bottom of the Black Sea, near the area where the dam was broken, the flow of water was supposed to dig a trench (graben). Shortly after the publication of this work, William Ryan and his colleagues went in search of the trench, and it was found exactly in the place where the model predicted. So Ryan brilliantly (and perhaps finally) confirmed his hypothesis.
Later, British geologist Chris Tournay and his colleague Heidi Brown from Australia, using radiocarbon dating, determined the exact date of that long-ago disaster. It occurred 8230-8350 years ago. Tournay and Brown also analyzed how the “flood” turned out for the people who then inhabited the Black Sea coast. According to their calculations, no more than 145 thousand people lived in the flooded area - they estimate its area at 73 thousand square kilometers. They all had to escape the flooded sea. Traces of this great migration are found in the central part of Europe, which at that time was inhabited only by hunters and gatherers. Around 8,200 years ago, agriculture and livestock farming began to spread here. “Noah,” is the conclusion of geologists, “was probably one of those peasants who had to flee from the rising water.”
Of course, this is just a hypothesis, but as archaeologists study the traces of that disaster, the biblical legend becomes a real historical fact.

GLOBAL FLOOD...
Nepomnyashchiy Nikolai Nikolaevich
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THE FLOOD One of the most striking episodes of the Bible, undoubtedly, is the legend of the Flood. This legend, striking the imagination like no other, has served as an eternal theme for artists of all times. It is interesting that mentions of the Flood are found in oral literature and epics...
The description of the biblical Great Flood, which occurred about 5 thousand years ago, is not the very first mention of this disaster. An earlier Assyrian myth, recorded on clay tablets, tells of Gilgamesh, who escaped in an ark with various animals - and after the end of a seven-day flood, strong winds and rain, landed on Mount Nitzir in Mesopotamia. By the way, many details coincide in the stories of the floods: in order to find out whether the earth appeared from under the water, Noah released a raven and twice a dove; Ut-Napishtim - dove and swallow. The methods of building arks are also similar. What is this - a free presentation of one and the same event, a story about different regional floods, or facts from history about the actual global flood, in which several representatives of different nations, independently of each other, were warned (or guessed, felt themselves) about impending danger?..

According to ethnologist Andre's calculations, in 1891 about eighty such legends were known. There are probably more than a hundred of them - and sixty-eight of them are in no way connected with the biblical source.

Thirteen myths, different ones at that, have come to us from Asia; four from Europe, five from Africa; nine are from Australia and Oceania; thirty-seven from the New World: sixteen from North America; seven from Central and fourteen from South. The German historian Richard Hennig noted that among different peoples, “the duration of the flood varies from five days to fifty-two years (among the Aztecs). In seventeen cases it was caused by rainfall; in others - snowfalls, melting glaciers, cyclones, storms, earthquakes, tsunamis. The Chinese, for example, believe that all floods are caused by the evil spirit Kun-Kun:
“In a fit of anger, he hits his head against one of the pillars that support the sky, and the heavens bring down giant waterspouts to the earth.”

The mythology of the flood is worldwide. But was it really global? Some researchers have tried to prove this. Some spoke of the Mongolian Sea, which once covered Central Asia and supposedly suddenly disappeared as a result of an earthquake that caused a flood from east to west. Others believed that the Earth's axis shifted, as a result of which the waters of the seas and oceans rushed from the Northern Hemisphere to the Southern. Still others argued that the Earth was surrounded for millions of years by a moist, gaseous atmosphere, like that of Venus; at a certain moment, the cloud masses thickened and fell to the ground in the form of heavy, prolonged rains.

None of these hypotheses have ever been confirmed. But the traditions of reporting the events of the flood indicate that a catastrophe associated with a short-term general flooding of the land actually occurred on all continents.

This fact is most clearly confirmed in the Middle East. The peoples of Palestine and Mesopotamia still have a terrible memory of the terrible flood. Undoubtedly, all these descriptions - Assyrian, Babylonian, Sumerian, Palestinian - were connected by a common memory of the same event. The earliest description - the Sumerian version - dates back to approximately 2000 BC. But after the cataclysm described in the Bible and in the Tale of Gilgamesh, traces should have remained on the earth. It would even be strange if they were not preserved. And they... were discovered!..

In 1928-1929, Dr. Simon Woolley led large excavations in those places where the Chaldean city of Ur once stood. The deeper he penetrated into the ground, the more surprising were his observations. Soon he came out onto a clay layer three to four meters thick. However, it will be better if we give the floor to Dr. Woolley himself: “We dug deeper and deeper, and suddenly the nature of the soil changed, instead of empty rock layers with traces of ancient culture, we came across a completely smooth layer of clay, uniform throughout its entire length; judging by the composition of the clay, it was applied by water. The workers suggested that we had reached the muddy bottom of the river... I told them to dig further. Having dug more than one and a half meters, they kept coming across pure clay. And suddenly, just as unexpectedly as before, layers of empty rock appeared on their way again... Consequently, huge clay deposits represented a certain milestone in the continuous course of history. From above there was the slow development of pure Sumerian civilization, and from below there were traces of a mixed culture... Not a single natural river flood could have deposited so much clay. A one and a half meter layer of clay could only have been deposited here by a gigantic water flow - a flood, such as these places had never known before. The presence of such a layer of clay indicates that once upon a time, a very long time ago, the development of local culture was abruptly interrupted. An entire civilization once existed here, which then disappeared without a trace - apparently, it was swallowed up by a flood... There can be no doubt about this: this flood is the very historical Flood that was described in the Sumerian legend and which formed the basis of the story of the misadventures of Noah... »
Dr. Woolley's arguments sound quite categorical and therefore produce quite a strong impression. Around the same time, Stephen Langdon discovered exactly the same alluvial deposits - that is, “material traces of the flood” - in Kish, an area of ​​​​Ancient Babylon. Subsequently, similar layers of sedimentary rocks were found in Uruk, Fara, Tello and Nineveh...

The famous French orientalist Dorme wrote: “It is now quite clear that the cataclysm, as Langdon suggests, occurred in 3300 BC, as evidenced by the traces discovered at Ur and Kish.”

Of course, it cannot be a mere coincidence that identical layers of sedimentary rocks were discovered at many excavation sites in Mesopotamia. This proves that a gigantic flood really took place. So, archaeological finds, literary and epigraphic works prove that the flood described in ancient texts is a very real event.

What caused the disaster? And where did so much “extra” water come from on Earth? After all, even if all the ice melts, the ocean level will still not rise by kilometers.

All world legends about the flood have one common detail. Legends say that in those days there was no... Moon in the sky. Those who lived in antediluvian times were called “dolunniks” (the ancient Greeks called them “proto-selenites”, from the Greek Selene - Moon).

So maybe this is the answer to the mystery of the Flood? Our only satellite, due to its significant mass, causes small floods and tides on Earth twice a day. The moon attracts more strongly the point on the earth's surface that is closest to it, and a hump “grows” at the sublunar point. The soil rises by half a meter, the ocean level by a meter, and in some places up to 18 m (Bay of Fundy in the Atlantic). And although we humans have long been accustomed to this seemingly ordinary phenomenon, it is unique in our Solar System. Astronomers do not know of another such example of the existence of such a heavy satellite on a relatively light planet like ours. It would be more correct, scientists believe, to call the Earth and the Moon not a planet and its satellite, but a double planet. The formation of such a system at the same time from the point of view of cosmology is impossible, from which it follows that the Moon is not the “sister” of the Earth, but, how to put it, a spouse who once came from the dark depths of space. They even call it a “maiden name”; before, Selena was supposedly the core of the deceased Phaeton.

As you know, the Moon is moving away from the Earth. And just imagine that there was a time when she hung below us. The closer, the larger the tidal waves should be and the slower the speed of the apparent movement of the star across our sky. If the height of the Moon’s orbit is reduced exactly 10 times, then it will hang over one point of the Earth like a geostationary satellite. The height of the tide in the open ocean will exceed a hundred meters. Few.

Let’s “lower” the Moon a little lower, and it will again move very slowly in the sky, only now not from east to west, but vice versa. In this case, a tidal wave from the west will rush into a huge funnel onto the eastern coast of America, Africa, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. The wave should reach its peak when it hits a barrier on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and especially the Black Sea. Here, a multi-kilometer tidal wave, almost standing in one place, will easily cover the Caucasus, and in a few days it will reach the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea (isn’t this the reason for the formation of these drying up inland seas?). Needless to say, the peak of Ararat should be the first to appear from under the water in the Caucasus...

Depending on the height of the Moon, the duration of such a flood can vary from a month to a year. In just a few years, a giant tidal wave will make a full revolution around the Earth, visiting all countries. In general, word for word. Everything is like in the legends! One mystery remains - how did the Moon manage to quickly approach the Earth, and then just as quickly move away? But maybe if we understand why the Moon is still slowly “running away” from us, then we can deal with its sharp jerk in the past?
ARK ON THE MOUNTAINS OF ARARAT

ARK ON THE MOUNTAINS OF ARARAT

In eastern Turkey, on the Anatolian coast, not far from the borders with Iran and Armenia, a mountain covered with eternal snow rises. Its height above sea level is only 5165 meters, which does not allow it to be among the highest mountains in the world, but it is one of the most famous peaks on Earth Name this mountain is Ararat

In the clear air of the early morning, before the clouds cover the peak, and at dusk, when the clouds go away, revealing the mountain appearing against the background of the evening pink or purple sky before the eyes of people, many look at the outline of a huge ship high on the mountain

Mount Ararat, on the top of which Noah's Ark should be located, is mentioned in the religious traditions of the Babylonian kingdom and the Sumerian state, in which the name Ut-Napishtim was given instead of Noah. Islamic legends also immortalized Noah (in Arabic Nuh) and his huge ark-ship, however again, without at least an approximate indication of the place of his stay in the mountains, which is here called Al-Jud (the peaks), which means Ararat and two other mountains in the Middle East, the Bible provides us with approximate information about the location of the ark “the ark stopped on the Ararat Mountains" Travelers, who for centuries made voyages with caravans to Central Asia or back, repeatedly passed near Ararat and then said that they had seen the ark near the top of the mountain, or mysteriously hinted at their intentions to find this ark ship. They even claimed that amulets were made from the wreckage of the ark to protect against illnesses, misfortunes, poisons and unrequited love

Starting around 1800, groups of mountain climbers with quadrants, altimeters, and later with cameras climbed to Ararat. These expeditions did not find the true remains of the huge Noah’s Ark, but found huge ship-like traces - in the glaciers and near the very top of the mountain they noticed massive columnar formations covered with ice , similar to wooden beams hewn by human hands. At the same time, the opinion was increasingly established that the ark gradually slid down the mountainside and fell apart into numerous fragments, which were now probably frozen into one of the glaciers covering Ararat..

If you look at Ararat from the surrounding valleys and foothills, then, with a good imagination, it is not difficult to see the hull of a huge ship in the folds of the mountainous terrain, and notice some elongated oval object in the depths of the gorge or a not entirely clear dark rectangular spot in the ice of the glaciers. However many explorers who claimed, especially in the last two centuries, that they saw a ship on Ararat, in some cases climbed high into the mountains and found themselves, as they claimed, in close proximity to the ark, most of which was buried under ice

Legends about an unusually large wooden ship, which has survived entire civilizations over the millennia, do not seem absolutely plausible to many. After all, wood, iron, copper, bricks and other building materials, with the exception of huge rock blocks, are destroyed over time, and how can a wooden ship be preserved in this case? ship on top. This question can be answered, apparently, only in this way because this ship was frozen in the ice of a glacier. On the top of Ararat, in the glacier between the two peaks of the mountain, it is cold enough to preserve a ship built from thick logs, which, as mentioned in messages that came from the depths millennia, “they were thoroughly salted inside and out.” The reports of mountain climbers and airplane pilots about their visual observations of a ship-like object that they noticed on Ararat always speak of parts of the ship covered with a solid shell of ice, or of traces within the glacier resembling the outline ship, corresponding to the dimensions of the ark given in the Bible: “three hundred cubits long, fifty cubits wide and thirty cubits high.”

Thus, it can be argued that the preservation of the ark mainly depends on climatic conditions. Approximately every twenty years, exceptionally warm periods occurred in the Ararat mountain range. In addition, every year in August and early September it is very hot, and it is during these periods that reports of the discovery of traces of a large ship on the mountain appear. So, when a ship is covered with ice, it cannot weather and rot like a number of extinct animals known to scientists: Siberian mammoths or saber-tooth tigers and other mammals from the Pleistocene era found in Alaska and northern Canada. When removed from the ice captivity, they were completely intact, even in their stomachs there was still undigested food.

Since certain areas of the surface of Ararat are covered with snow and ice throughout the year, searchers for the remains of a large ship could not notice them. If this ship on the mountain is covered with snow and ice all the time, extensive special research is needed. But it is very difficult to carry them out, because the mountain peak is fraught, according to the residents of the surrounding villages, with a danger for mountain climbers, consisting in the fact that supernatural forces protect Ararat from people’s attempts to find Noah’s Ark. This “protection” manifests itself in various natural disasters: avalanches, sudden rockfalls, severe hurricanes in the immediate vicinity of the peak. Unexpected fogs make it impossible for climbers to navigate, so among snow and ice fields and deep gorges they often find their graves in icy, snow-covered bottomless cracks. In the foothills there are many poisonous snakes, wolf packs are often found, very dangerous wild dogs, bears inhabiting large and small caves in which climbers often try to make a halt, and, in addition, Kurdish bandits reappear from time to time. In addition, by decision of the Turkish authorities, the approaches to the mountain were guarded for a long time by gendarmerie detachments.
Many historical evidence that something similar to a ship was noticed on Ararat belonged to those who visited nearby settlements and cities and admired Ararat from there. Other observations belong to those who, traveling with caravans to Persia, passed along the Anatolian plateau. Despite the fact that many of the evidence dates back to ancient times and the Middle Ages, some of them contained details that modern researchers noticed much later. Beroes, Babylonian chronicler, in 275 BC. wrote: “... a ship that sank to the ground in Armenia,” and, in addition, mentioned: “... the resin from the ship was scraped off and amulets were made from it.” Exactly the same information is given by the Jewish chronicler Josephus, who wrote his works in the first century after the conquest of Judea by the Romans. He presented a detailed account of Noah and the Flood and, in particular, wrote: “One part of the ship can still be found today in Armenia ... there people collect resin to make amulets.”
In the late Middle Ages, one of the legends says that the resin was ground into powder, dissolved in liquid and drunk as a medicine to protect against poisoning.

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7. Factors of localization of anomalous physical fields and media

What can create a picture of local pulsation of factors disturbing the atmosphere, shown in Figures 1, 2, 4-5? First, let us recall the crystalline structure of the Earth, which has been touched upon by many researchers (see the summary of works in the publication; G.S. Belyakova. What are you, Earth? - M.: Russkaya Mysl, 1993, No. 1-2). The main conclusion is the following: only crystalline systems can transform flat physical fronts, sharply increasing their intensity at the vertices (Figure 6).

Next, we use the concept of I.P. Kopylov, in which the Earth is considered as a unipolar electric motor, alternately operating in the MHD generator mode (Figure 7). The combination of the features of crystalline forms and space electromechanics allows us to move on to the real atmosphere, displayed on statistical maps of weather anomalies by E.V. Borodzich. In this situation, the superrotation of the atmosphere, known to many (that is, the faster rotation of the air column relative to the underlying hydrolithosphere at a speed of about 100 km/h), determines its background (lateral, calm) state, as Peter Brounov spoke about. But only powerful local gravimagnetic disturbances reaching the Earth’s surface through radially oriented mantle channels (Figure 8) introduce vortex (turbulent) effects into this monotonous picture.
Figure 6 Above - tetrahedron (A), hexahedron (B), octahedron (C), dodecahedron (D), icosahedron (D), which are called “Platonic solids”. According to Plato's theory, the Crystal-Earth (E) consists of a combination of a dodecahedron and an icosahedron. Below is a diagram of the elementary cells of the Earth of the first rank (according to N.F. Goncharov). The numbers highlight the tops of the cells of ancient civilizations, starting with Giza (Egypt in the diagram - number 1).

The presence of such anomalies even in the quasi-calm regime of geodynamics, characteristic of the instrumentally observed time interval of the 1970-1990s, explains a fairly large number of major accidents, primarily affecting thin technological systems.

First of all, these are high-risk enterprises, energy facilities, transport, and communications. And especially aviation, the complex of influences on which includes the dynamics of the atmosphere - descending and ascending atmospheric “explosions”, rapid loss of visibility, failure of navigation aids, etc. We should not forget the so-called “human factor”, which includes a large list of psychotic, vestibular and other reactions of biological systems to a sharply changing physical environment.

The strength and nature of such impacts can be imagined both from the latest radio messages and on-board recordings of crews who died in structures such as the Bermuda Triangle (number 18 in Figure 6), and from the evidence of those who miraculously escaped such a situation. Among the latter, one of the most informative examples is the flight over the Atlantic in 1974 of two of our strategic bombers. Both aircraft, following one after the other with an interval of about fifteen kilometers, entered a zone of very strong external influences and also sequentially exited it. Both crews then spoke about a complete loss of orientation, severe bumpiness (more precisely, not about bumpiness, but about strong sharp blows to the hull due to the high speeds of flight through air vortices that were relatively small in diameter and perpendicular to the direction of flight), turning off radio communications and navigation devices, brain spasms, whistling in the ears, a feeling of unaccountable fear up to the loss of consciousness and understanding of what is happening. The width of the “death zone” was later estimated at 15-20 kilometers. At the same time, both aircraft, initially flying at a flight level of 7 km, lost more than half their altitude.

8. Some personal experience

The author experienced a similar, but much shorter-term situation when in 1955, during an air search for uranium ore deposits on an AN-2 aircraft, the air search crew (pilot, navigator, flight mechanic and two operators) entered the local zone of such influence three times. The task involved a detailed search using gamma and magnetometric methods for the Nakhichevan Valley, which stretches in a sublatitudinal direction along the Arak River bordering Iran. Quite long routes along the left bank of the Araks were laid at a distance of 250 meters from each other; The average flight altitude above the terrain was 70 meters. Only in one place was this monotonous picture broken by a transverse ridge about 150 meters high that stood out in the flat terrain. We flew reconnaissance routes in this area more than once, but did not notice any peculiarities. Work usually began before sunrise, which reduced the difficulties of piloting due to thermal turbulent air flows that occurred later.

This is how it began that early morning: the first route, lasting about 10 minutes, passed in absolute calm; Only above the mentioned transverse ridge we were slightly swayed. In some surprise, we just looked at each other. At the end of the route, a turn was made and the flight went in the opposite direction (in increments of 250 meters). And again everything was in deep calm, although we were rocked quite sharply over the same ridge. The next turn is at the other end of the training ground, and we fly a third parallel route. We approach the transverse ridge; here it is almost below us. And then the unimaginable happened - at the first moment we were strongly pressed to the floor, then there was a terrible throw into the ceiling and a roar from the fall of everything that was poorly secured. Our pilot, Levon Poghosyan, an ace in flying in the mountains, who never fastened himself to a seat to make his work easier, was instantly torn from the controls and pressed against the upper glazing of the cockpit; for a moment he was helplessly dangling his hands, trying to reach the rudders. The engine stalled due to gasoline being sucked out. We were thrown into the ceiling too; in the silence that followed, of course, only conditional silence (in comparison with the constant roar of a powerful engine working in flight), we heard the desperate grinding of the metal of the aircraft’s load-bearing structures in the overloads they were experiencing of who knows what variable sign. The next moment we were thrown to the floor. Here the engine roared, I jumped up and saw rocks rushing by next to the wing...

Everything lasted no more than 10 seconds. This means that at a horizontal flight speed of about 40 meters per second, the diameter of the zone of conjugation of ascending and descending flows was no more than four hundred meters! And then again there was complete calm all around. The sun in the valley had just risen, and its weak rays had not yet created the usual thermal turbulent flows for mountains - fly as much as you want. But we had no time for flying: the plane was returning to the base, to our border airfield on the outskirts of Nakhichevan, the interception airfield closest to the USSR border, where two MIG 21 combat fighters were always on duty at the start.

Then on the ground, in a state of residual shock, and, as they say, licking the bleeding lacerated wounds (of course, with the help of iodine and a bandage from the on-board medical package), for a long time we did not leave our, in the full sense of the word, savior - AN-2 ", discussing what happened. Later, the author learned that under similar circumstances, dozens of aircraft died, including several American F-16 fighters, literally torn to pieces from transverse air impacts, rushing at speeds sometimes exceeding even 300 meters per second. Their “black boxes” showed this. How many units of gravity acceleration (those very units of “ZhE” that cosmonauts know well) our “Anton” withstood then remained a mystery, since there were no “black boxes” on those planes at that time.

METHODOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION WITH GOD METHODOLOGICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USING METHODS OF PROTECTION AGAINST NEGATIVE ENERGY INFORMATION IMPACTS
http://anti-potop.narod.ru/metodologia.html
Fundamental helimetric studies carried out in the 1950-80s made it possible to clarify existing ideas about the structure of the Earth, its energy and organization. The subsequent analysis of the information involved led to a revision of more general aspects of existence with access to society. As a result, the discrepancy between the anthropocentric ideas about life on Earth formed over time and the true laws of the Universe was confirmed. As a result, MAN, for about two thousand years now, has been seeing the World as in a distorted mirror, with the image turned upside down, and science, which should fulfill the role of “look-ahead,” does not fulfill these duties and tries to explain the false, pseudo-materialistic content of Existence. The result, of course, is close to zero. For the same reasons, science came into conflict with religion, which retained at its core (despite many negative details) the true vision of the World.

Research confirms the high organization (up to self-organization) of the astrogeophysical space containing Society, where the probability of the random emergence of the World is estimated in numbers in tens of negative degrees. That is, the random emergence of the environment in which Man lives cannot be explained by any purely evolutionary processes. For the same reasons, one should accept the self-organizing essence of the Universe, functioning in a fundamentally revealed system of MAN-PRODUCTION-NATURE. In contrast to the real open one, the generally accepted system MAN–PRODUCTION–NATURE is considered absolutely closed, which explains its instability, vulnerability, and lack of safety margin in all the technological and sociocratic devices of Existence developed by Civilization.

Consistent physical interpretation of the vast factual material (taking into account the works of Albert Einstein, Paul Dirac, Niels Bohr, Nikolai Kozyrev, etc.) further leads to an understanding of the energy-informational essence of Being in a wide range of intensities and only in two signs of realization - plus and minus. This also corresponds to positive and negative, good and bad, good and evil. This is in the worldly or secular understanding of Genesis. In the theological concept, everything is subordinate to the Highest principle - GOD, with any possible personalization of Him and division into levels according to intellect. Then follow the Prophets with the angels and the satanic forces of evil always trying to resist them.

So, the essence of good and evil is not an invention of theologians. It is physical, it really exists, it has a very different hierarchy, and we are directly in it. The task of paramount importance becomes the development of ways to implement good and all-round self-distance from the pole of evil. There is nothing fundamentally new in this kind of approach - everything is contained in the well-known commandments and other sources of religious information. The main task in this regard is to restore the trampled and forgotten priorities of morality, ethics and faith in the existence of a Higher Principle, no matter what form of personal understanding and perception it may be.

The observed global destabilization (swing) is not accidental. This is a complex resonant physical process determined by increasing external influences. It (the process) obeys the main two-thousand-year Solar rhythm, where time, as one of the components of energy, is also quantized. There is evidence that the transition to the Third Millennium changes the sign of being from negative to positive. In physical language, this is the point of bifurcation, or TIME OF TRANSFORMATION; in theology - the well-known, but contradictory described in different editions, APOCALYPSE, sometimes even interpreted as the End of the World.

But APOCALYPSE is by no means the End of the World. This is precisely the TIME OF TRANSFORMATION, the very “narrow throat” that our Civilization must go through in order to shed the accumulated bad things. Losses are inevitable. However, their level is determined by our own behavior. But if you don’t know this (or don’t want to know, as many people in power do) and don’t take appropriate protective measures, then the loss of Civilization at the transition point can become catastrophic. Those from which Civilization may not recover at all. And in this case it is in vain to believe, as world science does, that the Earth is dead; that it does not have such a high level of energy to quickly and in most regions dramatically change the nature of the habitat. We did not know only these mechanisms (“electric machine-Earth”, etc.). The existing energy industry and the current mechanisms for its implementation are such that all the technical means of life support developed over two thousand years (coal mines, oil and gas fields with long-distance fuel transportation pipelines, power plants and power lines, all types of transport, communications, housing, especially in large industrial and economic areas) megacities) can be destroyed almost instantly and everywhere.

There are plenty of ways for the Earth to strongly influence a practically unprotected and misinformed Humanity, starting with mutagenic transformations of symbiotic microorganisms into toxigenic ones (“when the water becomes bitter, like wormwood”); ending with ozone holes, catastrophic earthquakes, volcanic eruptions. Among the most powerful impacts are the asteroid hazard and the reversal of the Earth's axis.

A civilization based on vicious anthropocentrism cannot resist the complex of “retribution factors” at all. The only active way of defense is to change the worldview from anthropocentric to the original cosmic one. At the same time, the level of losses in the transition from a negative to a positive sign of Being is determined by our own behavior. Many people have been talking about this for a long time: Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky, Gumilev, Tsiolkovsky, Vernadsky, etc. But all this was accepted at the state level with complete distrust. It was also not discussed how energy influences can be controlled.

The protection method was restored using experimental physics. It represents a generalized and rather simplified version of the TEN CHRISTIAN COMMANDMENTS, which best correspond to the original principles of the COSMIC UNIVERSE; Later information received at different times by the prophets from the Supreme Intelligence was also used, including the latest information accepted by the Prophet Muhammad and set forth by Him in the Koran.

So, below are quite simple in content RECOMMENDATIONS that allow EVERYONE, from the individual to Civilization, to quickly and effectively solve almost all the problems of EXISTENCE: 1. Constantly remember the presence of a HIGHEST BEGINNING (GOD) in any form of ITS content and manifestation (available in kind of any known ideas about Divine PRIORITY, depending on the level of personal intelligence and personal involvement in one or another faith). Fulfill your work, creative, life plans only in constant mental communication with the Higher Principle. To communicate with the Highest Principle, you can use any means of personal contact, starting with traditional prayers. 2. Work hard, fulfilling the programs (plans) outlined in agreement with the Highest Principle, doing only good for everyone, which turns back through thanksgiving for the individual. Always work with maximum intensity and efficiency, resting only in the next appeal to God (in prayer) in switching good deeds and on holidays. 3. Don’t allow yourself a lot of excess in everything (be a rational ascetic). Use as much of the surplus as possible for charitable purposes and sponsorships. 4. Carefully and rationally treat all living things around you, as well as the environment and Mother Earth. Do not allow yourself to just pick “a hair from another’s head”, a stalk in a field, do not casually throw even a match, a cigarette butt or a piece of paper; observe special purity in everything, creating on this basis personal moral purity of the highest level.

Experimental testing shows that the form of the “Recommendations” is quite simple. There is also evidence of their high efficiency - testing in practice was carried out at the level of experimental physics. In this part, the team of authors and numerous experts of the “Recommendations” give a full guarantee.

But, as simple as what is proposed in content, it is so complex in the organizational part - IN IMPLEMENTATION, since execution will immediately encounter opposition from all the forces of EVIL, which are especially now very powerful. These are the various “isms” well known to everyone: political extremism, vandalism, nationalism, religious fundamentalism, etc. However, GOD is with us! God is not a fictional God, GOD is REAL, PHYSICAL AND ALL-POWERFUL! We must finally unite SCIENCE AND RELIGION, and REAL SCIENCE and PURE RELIGION, no matter what religion the latter may be, since the root of all faiths is the same, and the division of a single ancient religion into more than 300 faiths of our time is the result of the same extremism, this time religious.

The growth of EVIL in recent times is not accidental. This is the above-mentioned highly organized universal geophysical PROCESS of the negative phase of existence, implemented in accordance with the rhythm of the Sun and specially intended for testing, insight and purification. In this process, everything happens according to a rigid scenario, leading to only one result. The details of the events are set out in all sources of religious information, and the older the sources, the more accurate the information they contain. Valuable information is also contained in folk sayings, proverbs, and parables. Let us cite one of them, well-known and very expressive: IF GOD WANTS TO PUNISH, THEN FIRST HE TAKES THE MIND. This is a very accurate statement of recent events of any nature and significance, which is determined by the physics of the process, where the culmination of development in the negative sign of BEING is the transition of information noise into direct disinformation. Disinformation has already covered the most important areas of EXISTENCE, and false ideas about the World that contains us (from the structure of the Earth to the mechanisms of weather formation and natural disasters) are the most dangerous.

Figure 1 Map of low atmospheric pressure anomalies in the Northern Hemisphere.
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Figures 2 A-D Weather maps of atmospheric pressure anomalies in the Baikal region near the Mongolian cyclonic barocenter.

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Figure 2 A Location of cyclonic barocenters in the Baikal region, where the group of the most geodynamically active anomalies is located. Here, on the territory of Western Mongolia, is the most powerful cyclonic barocenter that has been studied.
Figure 2 B Location of anticyclonic barocenters in the Baikal region. The three main barocenters are local and intense; there is no connection with the nature of the relief and other general features. Barocenter in the east of the lake. Baikal (top right) is the most powerful. Its location is determined by the intersection of the Baikal structures with the sub-meridional end of the Mama Rift. In this place, geodynamics sharply intensify, hot water outlets appear - this is the center of strong earthquakes. Here the construction of the Baikal railway became very complicated (Severomuysky tunnel, etc.)
Figure 2 B Map of the difference between the centers of closed isobars in the Baikal region. The dipole formed by the Mongolian cyclonic barocenter and the second most intense anticyclonic barocenter is clearly visible here. Taken together, it shows the fundamental nature of the information obtained by E.V. Borozdich as a result of statistical processing of weather maps and the conclusions drawn on this basis by Academician V.N. Komarov. This unique information indicates a fundamentally different structure of the Earth and the World that contains us than is generally accepted. Figures 4 A-D Set of maps of atmospheric pressure anomalies in the Black Sea-Caspian region.
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Map of recurrence frequencies of cyclones and anticyclones in the time interval 1977–1980. for the Black Sea-Caspian region. The numbers at the breaks in the isolines indicate the number of cases. The most intense geodynamic anomaly determines the concentric structure of the ELBRUS CYCLONIC BAROCENTER.
A comparison shows that: THE WEATHER FORMATION IS PRACTICALLY NOT DEPENDENT ON THE NATURE OF THE RELIEF, THE INTENSITY OF SOLAR HEATING AND THE SEA COMPONENT.
Figure 4 A Isolines of the frequency of cyclone formation.
Figure 4 B Isolines of the frequency of formation of anticyclones.
Figure 4 B Difference option (the smaller is subtracted from the larger).
Figure 4 D Standard relief map for the same area. where 1-3 delimit the height, respectively, up to 500m, 500-1000m, more than 1000m.

Figures 5 A-D Set of maps of atmospheric pressure anomalies for Greenland.
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The most intense geodynamic anomaly determines the concentric structure of the GREENLAND CYCLONIC BAROCENTER.
A comparison of materials according to the figures shows a complete LACK OF CONNECTION between WEATHER FORMATION and the nature of the underlying surface, latitudinal zonality and the monsoon-trade wind component.
Figure 5 A Isolines of the frequency of cyclone formation (the numbers in the breaks of the isolines indicate the number of cases)
Figure 5 B Isolines of the frequency of formation of anticyclones
Figure 5 B Difference option (the smaller is subtracted from the larger).
Figure 5 D The nature of the relief and underlying surface, where 1-3 delimit the height, respectively, up to 500m, 500-1000m, more than 1000m.

Figure 6 Diagram of the elementary cells of the Earth in the form of a complex crystal.
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At the top there is a tetrahedron (A), hexahedron (B), octahedron (C), dodecahedron (D), icosahedron (D), which are called “Platonic solids”. Crystal-Earth (E) consists of a combination of dodecahedrons and icosahedrons (according to Plato's theory). Below is a diagram of the elementary cells of the Earth of the first rank (according to N.F. Goncharov). The numbers highlight the tops of the cells of ancient civilizations, starting with Giza (Egypt, number 1 in the diagram).

Figure 7 Unipolar motor - Earth (according to I.P. Kopylov).
1 – solid internal iron-nickel core; 2 – molten outer core; 3 – hard-plastic basaltoid mantle; 4 – metastable earth’s crust. The Earth's magnetic field is created by currents of the Earth's core (Iec), currents of radiation belts (Irb) and transverse currents (Ic) at the boundary of the stratosphere and Space

Figure 8 Mantle channels in the section of the Earth (according to E.V. Artyushkov).
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1 - gravitational solid core. 2 -molten outer core (region of nuclear fusion reactions and gravitational distribution of its products in the form of hyperplasma). 3 - mantle (area of ​​mixing and deposition of nuclear fusion products). 4 - upper mantle (deposition of lighter nuclear fusion products). 5 - asthenosphere (beginning of decomposition of deep supercritical substance into solid and liquid components). 6 - lower crust (separation of supercritical deep substance into a solid base and a liquid phase saturating it). 7 - upper crust (layer of pseudo-rock). 8 - “hot spots” in superposition with mantle channels. Such areas are characterized by phase transitions with the release of enormous energies, disturbances of geophysical fields and environments, up to eruptions and earthquakes. 9 - atmosphere and ionosphere.

Figure 10 Copies of records of the high-frequency microbarograph "VIMS-1991"
Examples of records from the high-precision microbarograph "VIMS-1991" (recorder "KSP-4"). In all records, high-frequency variations of ∆P showed an image of an anomalous process (see Fig. 1), sometimes complicated by an even higher-frequency component. A - calm situation; B - the passage of a local cumulus cloud, accompanied by the fall of individual large raindrops; C, D - more intense disturbances during the passage of fronts with rainfall (center of Moscow); D - passage through the center of a well-formed thunderstorm with an “anvil” (Pestovo training ground, Moscow region); E-squall on the night of June 21, 1998 (center of Moscow)

Figure 11 Graphic representation of the process of disturbance of all geophysical fields and environments leading to pathology (Rospatent No. 2030769). A is the signal intensity for any indicator used at time t.
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Figure 12 The course of changes in atmospheric pressure for the period from August 29 to September 24 at the weather station in the city of Truskavets (15 km from the Stebnik object). Break of the brine storage dam at the Stebnikovsky potash plant. 1983
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Figure 13 The course of changes in atmospheric pressure and air temperature at the time of the collapse of the dome of the Istrinsky VIS in January 1985. Temperature (2) in winter works in antiphase and is not as informative as atmospheric pressure (1).
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Figure 14 Schemes of atmospheric pressure variations (∆P) during the “preparation” of the Aurora train accident on August 16, 1988.
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Atmospheric reactions to a strong local fast geodynamic process in ∆Р values ​​were obtained from data from a network of weather stations in the region, shown in circles. Meteorological data processing was carried out by E. V. Borodzich.
In diagram “A” the ∆Р values ​​at each weather station have a “minus” sign; the center of disturbance is the weather station of the city of Bologoye (minus 18 millibars). This is the first deformation extreme noticed by the track measuring device on August 15, that is, on the eve of the accident.
The second extremum with a plus sign - (+22 millibars) - is shown in diagram “B”. In time, he is approaching the moment of the accident.

Figure 18 Regional position of Moscow, located at the intersection of two transcontinental fault systems.
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In the figure, white dots show weather stations with the number of anomalous pressure gradients (differences), which are a sign of tectonic activation. Since the end of 1988, active processes have ceased, and a calm area, shown by isolines, has formed around Moscow.

Figure 17 Field of correlations of partial pressures of helium isotopes in pascals (Pa) for groups of gas, water and mineral samples
The numbers show: 1 - atmospheric air; 2 - steam-hydrotherms of Iceland; 3 - steam temperature of the Eastern fumarole field, o. Kunashir; 4 - nitrogen-spontaneous hydrotherms of Column springs, o. Kunashir; 5 - Gazli gas field; 6 - Orenburg gas field; 7 - Shebelik gas field, Ukraine; 8 - nitrogen-spontaneous wells in the area of ​​Soroca, Moldova; 9 - nitrogen-type gas emissions in the mine workings of the Krivoy Rog iron ore deposit; 10 - release of nitrogen from the brine of the Boenskaya well, Moscow, depth 1400 m; 11 - nitrogen-helium gas field, Rattlesnake, USA, depth 2000 m; 12 - radioactive minerals of Great Bear Lake, Canada.

This volcanic eruption is considered one of the deadliest and most destructive in history: at least 36,417 people died as a result of the eruption itself and the tsunami it caused, 165 cities and settlements were completely destroyed, and another 132 were seriously damaged. The consequences of the eruption were felt to one degree or another in all areas of the globe.

The daily audience of the Proza.ru portal is about 100 thousand visitors, who in total view more than half a million pages according to the traffic counter, which is located to the right of this text. Each column contains two numbers: the number of views and the number of visitors.

Even Leonardo da Vinci found fossilized shells of marine organisms on the peaks of the Alpine mountains and came to the conclusion that there used to be a sea on the site of the highest ridges of the Alps. Later, marine fossils were found not only in the Alps, but also in the Carpathians, the Caucasus, the Pamirs, and the Himalayas. Indeed, the main mountain system of our time - the Alpine-Himalayan belt - was born from an ancient sea. At the end of the last century, the outline of the area covered by this sea became clear: it extended between the Eurasian continent in the north and Africa and Hindustan in the south. E. Suess, one of the greatest geologists of the end of the last century, called this space the Tethys Sea (in honor of Thetis, or Tetis - the sea goddess).

A new turn in the idea of ​​Tethys came at the beginning of this century, when A. Wegener, the founder of the modern theory of continental drift, made the first reconstruction of the Late Paleozoic supercontinent Pangea. As you know, it moved Eurasia and Africa closer to North and South America, combining their coasts and completely closing the Atlantic Ocean. At the same time, it was discovered that, closing the Atlantic Ocean, Eurasia and Africa (together with Hindustan) diverge to the sides and between them a void appears, a gap several thousand kilometers wide. Of course, A. Wegener immediately noticed that the gap corresponds to the Tethys Sea, but its dimensions corresponded to oceanic ones, and it was necessary to talk about the Tethys Ocean. The conclusion was obvious: as the continents drifted, as Eurasia and Africa moved away from America, a new ocean, the Atlantic, opened and at the same time the old ocean, the Tethys, closed (Fig. 1). Therefore, the Tethys Sea is a disappeared ocean.

This schematic picture, which emerged 70 years ago, has been confirmed and detailed in the last 20 years on the basis of a new geological concept, now widely used in the study of the structure and history of the Earth - plate tectonics. Let us recall its main provisions.

The upper solid shell of the Earth, or lithosphere, is divided by seismic belts (95% of earthquakes are concentrated in them) into large blocks or plates. They cover continents and oceanic spaces (there are 11 large plates in total today). The lithosphere has a thickness from 50-100 km (under the ocean) to 200-300 km (under the continents) and rests on a heated and softened layer - the asthenosphere, along which plates can move in the horizontal direction. In some active zones - in the mid-ocean ridges - lithospheric plates move apart at a speed of 2 to 18 cm/year, making room for the upward rise of basalts - volcanic rocks melted from the mantle. As basalts harden, they build up the diverging edges of the plates. The process of plates moving apart is called spreading. In other active zones - in deep-sea trenches - lithospheric plates come closer together, one of them “dives” under the other, going down to depths of 600-650 km. This process of plates sinking and being absorbed into the Earth's mantle is called subduction. Extended belts of active volcanoes of a specific composition (with lower silica content than in basalts) appear above subduction zones. The famous Pacific Ring of Fire lies directly above subduction zones. Catastrophic earthquakes recorded here are caused by the stresses necessary to pull the lithospheric plate down. Where plates approaching each other carry continents that, due to their lightness (or buoyancy), are unable to sink into the mantle, continents collide and mountain ranges arise. The Himalayas, for example, were formed during the collision of the continental block of Hindustan with the Eurasian continent. The rate of convergence of these two continental plates is now 4 cm/year.

Since lithospheric plates are, to a first approximation, rigid and do not undergo significant internal deformations during their movement, mathematical apparatus can be applied to describe their movements across the earth’s sphere. It is not complicated and is based on L. Euler's theorem, according to which any movement on a sphere can be described as rotation around an axis passing through the center of the sphere and intersecting its surface at two points or poles. Consequently, in order to determine the movement of one lithospheric plate relative to another, it is enough to know the coordinates of the poles of their rotation relative to each other and the angular velocity. These parameters are calculated from the values ​​of directions (azimuths) and linear velocities of plate movements at specific points. As a result, for the first time it was possible to introduce a quantitative factor into geology, and from a speculative and descriptive science it began to move into the category of exact sciences.

The comments made above are necessary so that the reader can further understand the essence of the work done jointly by Soviet and French scientists on the Tethys project, which was carried out within the framework of an agreement on Soviet-French cooperation in the field of ocean exploration. The main goal of the project was to restore the history of the disappeared Tethys Ocean. On the Soviet side, the person responsible for the work on the project was the Institute of Oceanology named after. P. P. Shirshov Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences A. S. Monin and A. P. Lisitsyn, V. G. Kazmin, I. M. Sborshchikov, L. A. Savostii, O. G. Sorokhtin and the author of this article took part in the research. Employees of other academic institutes were involved: D. M. Pechersky (O. Yu. Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth), A. L. Knipper and M. L. Bazhenov (Geological Institute). Great assistance in the work was provided by the staff of the Geological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the GSSR (Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the GSSR G. A. Tvalchrelidze, Sh. A. Adamia and M. B. Lordkipanidze), the Geological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the ArmSSR (corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the ArmSSR A. T. As-lanyan and M.I. Satian), Faculty of Geology of Moscow State University (Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences V.: E. Khain, N.V. Koronovsky, N.A. Bozhko and O.A. | Mazarovich).

From the French side, the project was headed by one of the founders of the theory of plate tectonics, C. Le Pichon (Pierre and Marie Curie University in Paris). Experts in the geological structure and tectonics of the Tethys belt took part in the research: J. Dercourt, L.-E. Ricoux, J. Le Privière and J. Geisan (Pierre and Marie Curie University), J.-C. Si-boue (Oceanographic Research Center in Brest), M. Westphal and J. P. Lauer (University of Strasbourg), J. Boulain (University of Marseille), B. Bijou-Duval (State Oil Company).

Research included joint expeditions to the Alps and Pyrenees, and then to the Crimea and the Caucasus, laboratory processing and synthesis of materials at the University. Pierre and Marie Curie and at the Institute of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The work began in 1982 and was completed in 1985. Preliminary results were reported at the XXVII session of the International Geological Congress, held in Moscow in 1984. The results of the joint work were summed up in a special issue of the international journal “Tectonophysics” in 1986. An abbreviated version of the report at published in French in 1985 in the Bulletin societe de France, and “The History of the Tethys Ocean” was published in Russian.

The Soviet-French Tethys project was not the first attempt to restore the history of this ocean. It differed from the previous ones by the use of new, better data, by the significantly greater extent of the region under study - from Gibraltar to the Pamirs (and not from Gibraltar to the Caucasus, as it was before), and most importantly, by the involvement and comparison of materials from various sources independent of each other. Three main groups of data were analyzed and taken into account in the reconstruction of the Tethys Ocean: kinematic, paleomagnetic and geological.

Kinematic data relate to the mutual movements of the main lithospheric plates of the Earth. They are entirely related to plate tectonics. By penetrating deep into geological time and successively moving Eurasia and Africa closer to North America, we obtain the relative positions of Eurasia and Africa and identify the contour of the Tethys Ocean for each specific moment in time. Here a situation arises that seems paradoxical to a geologist who does not recognize mobilism and plate tectonics: in order to imagine events, for example, in the Caucasus or in the Alps, it is necessary to know what happened thousands of kilometers away from these areas in the Atlantic Ocean.

In the ocean, we can reliably determine the age of the basaltic basement. If we combine the same-age bottom strips, located symmetrically on opposite sides of the axis of the mid-ocean ridges, we will obtain the parameters of plate movement, that is, the coordinates of the rotation pole and the rotation angle. The procedure for searching for parameters for the best combination of bottom strips of the same age is now well developed and is carried out on a computer (a series of programs is available at the Institute of Oceanology). The accuracy of determining the parameters is very high (usually fractions of a degree of great circle arc, that is, the error is less than 100 km), and the accuracy of reconstructions of the former position of Africa relative to Eurasia is equally high. This reconstruction serves for each moment of geological time as the rigid frame that should be taken as a basis when reconstructing the history of the Tethys Ocean.

The history of plate movement in the North Atlantic and the opening of the ocean in this place can be divided into two periods. In the first period, 190-80 million years ago, Africa separated from the united North America and Eurasia, the so-called Laurasia. Before this split, the Tethys Ocean had a wedge-shaped outline, expanding with a bell to the east. Its width in the Caucasus region was 2500 km, and abeam the Pamirs it was at least 4500 km. During this period, Africa shifted eastward relative to Laurasia, traveling a total of about 2,200 km. The second period, which began about 80 million years ago and continues to this day, was associated with the division of Laurasia into Eurasia and North America. As a result, the northern edge of Africa along its entire length began to move closer to Eurasia, which ultimately led to the closure of the Tethys Ocean.

The directions and rates of movement of Africa relative to Eurasia did not remain unchanged throughout the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras (Fig. 2). During the first period, in the western segment (west of the Black Sea), Africa moved (albeit at a low speed of 0.8-0.3 cm/year) to the southeast, giving the opportunity to open up the young oceanic basin between Africa and Eurasia.

80 million years ago in the western segment, Africa began to move north, and in recent times it has been moving northwest relative to Eurasia at a speed of about 1 cm/year. In full accordance with this are the folded deformations and growth of mountains in the Alps, Carpathians, and Apennines. In the eastern segment (in the Caucasus region), Africa began to move closer to Eurasia 140 million years ago, and the speed of convergence fluctuated noticeably. Accelerated convergence (2.5-3 cm/year) refers to the intervals 110-80 and 54-35 million years ago. It was during these intervals that intense volcanism was observed in the volcanic arcs of the Eurasian margin. The slowdown of movement (up to 1.2-11.0 cm/year) occurs in the intervals of 140-110 and 80-54 million years ago, when stretching occurred in the rear of the volcanic arcs of the Eurasian margin and the deep-sea basins of the Black Sea were formed. The minimum speed of approach (1 cm/year) dates back to 35-10 million years ago. Over the past 10 million years, in the Caucasus region, the rate of convergence of plates has increased to 2.5 cm/year due to the fact that the Red Sea began to open, the Arabian Peninsula broke away from Africa and began to move north, pressing its protrusion into the edge of Eurasia. It is no coincidence that the Caucasus mountain ranges grew at the top of the Arabian ledge. The paleomagnetic data used in the reconstruction of the Tethys Ocean are based on measurements of the remanent magnetization of rocks. The fact is that many rocks, both igneous and sedimentary, at the time of their formation were magnetized in accordance with the orientation of the magnetic field that existed at that time. There are methods that allow you to remove layers of later magnetization and establish what the primary magnetic vector was. It should be directed towards the paleomagnetic pole. If the continents do not drift, then all vectors will be oriented the same way.

Back in the 50s of our century, it was firmly established that within each individual continent, paleomagnetic vectors are indeed oriented in parallel and, although not elongated along modern meridians, are still directed to one point - the paleomagnetic pole. But it turned out that different continents, even nearby ones, are characterized by completely different vector orientations, that is, the continents have different paleomagnetic poles. This alone provided the basis for the assumption of large-scale continental drift.

In the Tethys belt, the paleomagnetic poles of Eurasia, Africa and North America also do not coincide. For example, for the Jurassic period the paleomagnetic poles have the following coordinates: for Eurasia - 71° N. w„ 150° e. d. (Chukotka region), near Africa - 60° N. latitude, 108°w. d. (region of Central Canada), near North America - 70° N. latitude, 132° east. d. (area of ​​the Lena estuary). If we take the parameters of the rotation of the plates relative to each other and, say, move the paleomagnetic poles of Africa and North America along with these continents to Eurasia, then a striking coincidence of these poles will be revealed. Accordingly, the paleomagnetic vectors of all three continents will be oriented subparallel and directed to one point - the common paleomagnetic pole. This kind of comparison of kinematic and paleomagnetic data was done for all time intervals, starting from 190 million years ago to the present. A good match was always found; it, by the way, is reliable evidence of the reliability and accuracy of paleogeographic reconstructions.

The main continental plates - Eurasia and Africa - bordered the Tethys Ocean. However, inside the ocean, there were undoubtedly smaller continental or other blocks, as now, for example, inside the Indian Ocean there is the microcontinent of Madagascar or the small continental block of the Seychelles. Thus, inside Tethys there were, for example, the Transcaucasian massif (the territory of the Rioni and Kurin depressions and the mountain bridge between them), the Daralagez (South Armenian) block, the Rhodope massif in the Balkans, the Apulian massif (covering most of the Apennine Peninsula and the Adriatic Sea). Paleomagnetic measurements within these blocks are the only quantitative data allowing us to judge their position in the Tethys Ocean. Thus, the Transcaucasian massif was located near the Eurasian outskirts. The small Daralagez block appears to be of southern origin and was previously annexed to Gondwana. The Apulian massif did not shift much in latitude relative to Africa and Eurasia, but in the Cenozoic it was rotated counterclockwise by almost 30°.

The geological group of data is the most abundant, since geologists have been studying the mountain belt from the Alps to the Caucasus for a good fifteen hundred years. This group of data is also the most controversial, since a quantitative approach can least of all be applied to it. At the same time, geological data in many cases are decisive: it is geological objects - rocks and tectonic structures - that were formed as a result of the movement and interaction of lithospheric plates. In the Tethys belt, geological materials made it possible to establish a number of significant features of the Tethys paleoocean.

Let's start with the fact that only based on the distribution of marine Mesozoic (and Cenozoic) sediments in the Alpine-Himalayan belt, the existence of a Tethys sea or ocean here in the past became obvious. By tracing different geological complexes over an area, it is possible to determine the position of the suture of the Tethys Ocean, that is, the zone along which the continents that framed the Tethys met with their edges. Of key importance are the outcrops of rocks of the so-called ophiolite complex (from the Greek ocpir ​​- snake, some of these rocks are called serpentines). Ophiolites consist of heavy rocks of mantle origin, depleted in silica and rich in magnesium and iron: peridotites, gabbros and basalts. Such rocks form the bedrock of modern oceans. Taking this into account, 20 years ago geologists came to the conclusion that ophiolites are remnants of the crust of ancient oceans.

Ophiolites of the Alpine-Himalayan belt mark the floor of the Tethys Ocean. Their outlets form a winding strip along the strike of the entire belt. They are known in the south of Spain, on the island of Corsica, stretching in a narrow strip along the central zone of the Alps, continuing into the Carpathians. Large tectonic scales of ophiolites have been found in the Dealer Alps in Yugoslavia and Albania, and in the mountain ranges of Greece, including the famous Mount Olympus. Outcrops of ophiolites form an arc facing south, between the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, and then can be traced into southern Turkey. Ophiolites are beautifully exposed in our country in the Lesser Caucasus, on the northern shore of Lake Sevan. From here they extend to the Zagros range and into the mountains of Oman, where ophiolite sheets are thrust over the shallow sediments of the margin of the Arabian Peninsula. But even here the ophiolite zone does not end; it turns east and, following parallel to the coast of the Indian Ocean, goes further to the northeast into the Hindu Kush, Pamir and Himalayas. Ophiolites have different ages - from Jurassic to Cretaceous, but everywhere they represent relics of the earth's crust of the Mesozoic Tethys Ocean. The width of the ophiolitic zones is measured at several tens of kilometers, while the original width of the Tethys Ocean was several thousand kilometers. Consequently, as the continents converged, almost all of the oceanic crust of Tethys went into the mantle in the subduction zone (or zones) along the ocean margin.

Despite its small width, the ophiolitic, or main, suture of Tethys separates two provinces that are sharply different in geological structure.

For example, among the Upper Paleozoic sediments that accumulated 300-240 million years ago, continental sediments predominate north of the suture, some of which were deposited in desert conditions; while to the south of the suture there are thick sequences of limestone, often reef-like, marking the vast shelf sea in the equator region. Equally striking is the change in Jurassic rocks: clastic, often coal-bearing, deposits north of the suture again contrast with limestones south of the suture. The seam separates, as geologists say, different facies (conditions for the formation of sediments): Eurasian temperate climates from Gondwanan equatorial climates. Crossing the ophiolite suture, we find ourselves, as it were, from one geological province to another. To the north of it we encounter large granite massifs, surrounded by crystalline schists and a series of folds that arose at the end of the Carboniferous period (about 300 million years ago), to the south - layers of sedimentary rocks of the same age lie conformably and without any signs of deformation and metamorphism . It is clear that the two outskirts of the Tethys Ocean - Eurasian and Gondwana - differed sharply from each other both in their position on the earth’s sphere and in their geological history.

Finally, we note one of the most significant differences between the areas lying north and south of the ophiolite suture. To the north of it there are belts of volcanic rocks of Mesozoic and early Cenozoic age, formed over 150 million years: from 190 to 35-40 million years ago. The volcanic complexes in the Lesser Caucasus are especially well traced: they stretch in a continuous strip along the entire ridge, going west to Turkey and further to the Balkans, and to the east to the Zagros and Elburz ranges. The composition of lavas has been studied in great detail by Georgian petrologists. They found that the lavas are virtually indistinguishable from the lavas of modern volcanoes of the island arcs and active margins that make up the Pacific Ring of Fire. Let us recall that volcanism surrounding the Pacific Ocean is associated with the subduction of oceanic crust under the continent and is confined to the boundaries of the convergence of lithospheric plates. This means that in the Tethys belt, volcanism of a similar composition marks the previous boundary of plate convergence, at which subduction of the oceanic crust took place. At the same time, south of the ophiolite suture there are no coeval volcanic manifestations; shallow shelf sediments, mainly limestones, were deposited here throughout the Mesozoic era and most of the Cenozoic era. Consequently, the geological data provide strong evidence that the margins of the Tethys Ocean were fundamentally different in tectonic nature. The northern, Eurasian margin with volcanic belts constantly forming at the boundary of the convergence of lithospheric plates was, as geologists say, active. The southern Gondwanan margin, devoid of volcanism and occupied by an extensive shelf, calmly passed into the deep basins of the Tethys Ocean and was passive. Geological data, and above all materials on volcanism, allow, as we see, to restore the position of the former boundaries of lithospheric plates and outline ancient subduction zones.

The above does not exhaust all the factual material that must be analyzed to reconstruct the disappeared Tethys Ocean, but I hope it is enough for the reader, especially those far from geology, to understand the basis of the constructions made by Soviet and French scientists. As a result, color paleogeographic maps were compiled for nine points in geological time from 190 to 10 million years ago. On these maps, based on kinematic data, the position of the main continental plates - the Eurasian and African (as part of Gondwana) is restored, the position of microcontinents inside the Tethys Ocean is determined, the boundary of the continental and oceanic crust is outlined, the distribution of land and sea is shown, and paleolatitudes are calculated (based on paleomagnetic data)4 . Particular attention is paid to the reconstruction of the boundaries of lithospheric plates - spreading zones and subduction zones. The displacement vectors of the main plates for each moment in time were also calculated. In Fig. 4 shows diagrams compiled from color maps. To make the prehistory of Tethys clear, they also added a diagram of the location of continental plates at the end of the Paleozoic (Late Permian era, 250 million years ago).

In the late Paleozoic (see Fig. 4, a) the Paleo-Tethys ocean extended between Eurasia and Gondwana. Already at this time, the main trend of tectonic history was determined - the existence of an active margin in the north of Paleo-Tethys and a passive one in the south. At the beginning of the Permian period, relatively large continental masses were broken off from the passive margin - Iranian, Afghan, Pamir, which began to move, crossing the Paleo-Tethys, to the north, to the active Eurasian margin. The oceanic bed of Paleo-Tethys in the front of drifting microcontinents was gradually absorbed in the subduction zone at the Eurasian margin, and in the rear of the microcontinents, between them and the Gondwana passive margin, a new ocean opened up - the Mesozoic Tethys proper, or Neo-Tethys.

In the Early Jurassic (see Fig. 4, b), the Iranian microcoinent became attached to the Eurasian margin. When they collided, a folded zone arose (the so-called Cimmerian folding). In the Late Jurassic, 155 million years ago, the opposition between the Eurasian active and Gondwana passive margins was clearly defined. At that time, the width of the Tethys Ocean was 2500-3000 km, that is, it was the same as the width of the modern Atlantic Ocean. The distribution of Mesozoic ophiolites made it possible to outline a spreading axis in the central part of the Tethys Ocean.

In the Early Cretaceous (see Fig. 4, c), the African plate - the successor of Gondwana, which had broken up by that time - moved towards Eurasia in such a way that in the west of Tethys the continents diverged somewhat and a new oceanic basin arose there, while in the eastern part the continents came closer and the bed of the Tethys Ocean was absorbed under the Lesser Caucasus volcanic arc.

At the end of the Early Cretaceous (see Fig. 4, d), the oceanic basin in the west of Tethys (it is sometimes called Mesogea, and its remains are modern deep-sea basins of the Eastern Mediterranean) ceased to open, and in the east of Tethys, judging by the dating of ophiolites of Cyprus and Oman , the active stage of spreading was ending. In general, the width of the eastern part of the Tethys Ocean by the middle of the Cretaceous period was reduced to 1500 km abeam the Caucasus.

The Late Cretaceous, 80 million years ago, saw a rapid reduction in the size of the Tethys Ocean: the width of the strip with oceanic crust at that time was no more than 1000 km. In some places, as in the Lesser Caucasus, collisions of microcontinents with the active margin began, and the rocks underwent deformation, accompanied by significant movements of tectonic nappes.

At the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (see Fig. 4e) at least three important events occurred. Firstly, ophiolite plates, rejects of the oceanic crust of Tethys, were pushed onto the passive margin of Africa by a wide front.