History of China in the 3rd century. Ancient China: periodization of history and culture

The history of Ancient China dates back to the distant past: several thousand years ago, great China was already formed. There were both ups and downs.

The periodization of Ancient China is due to the change of dynasties, which ultimately create this very history. Let's look at it.

Periodization of Ancient China

All these dynasties are also divided into several groups.

Stages of periodization of the history of the state in Ancient China:

1. The first people in the Neolithic era.

2. The period with the first three dynasties, when China was fragmented, there was no empire as such.

3. Traditional China and empire.

This is where all of old China ends, the dynasties as such cease to rule and the last stage begins, covering only the 20th and 21st centuries.

However, Ancient China refers to the period before the beginning of the Middle Ages, it ends with the Han Dynasty. The entire period of the existence of Ancient China can be expressed as the construction of the foundation for a great state, for the kind that it is now.

Let us briefly consider below the history of civilization and the periodization of Ancient China, social and government systems, as well as the philosophy of that time and great inventions.

The beginning of the story

It is known that the first ancestors of the Chinese lived 400 thousand years ago during the Neolithic era. The remains of Sinanthropus were found in a cave near Beijing. The first people already knew coloring and some other skills.

In general, the territory of China is convenient for life, so history goes back to such a distant past. The soil is fertile, and the steppe itself is surrounded by the sea and mountains, which could protect people from enemy attacks. This convenient location attracted the first residents, who were the ancestors of today's Chinese.

Scientists also know that there were two cultures after Sinanthropus: Yangshao and Longshan. There were probably more of them, but they mixed with each other. Only two have been archaeologically confirmed.

The Yangshao culture existed 2-3 thousand years BC. People of that period lived over a vast area from Gansu province all the way to southern Manchuria. It is known that they could make beautiful colored pottery.

Longshan was located mainly in the territory of Shandong province. In central China, both cultures overlapped each other. People also mastered the skill of processing ceramics, but their main pride was the ability to make various objects from bone. On some of them, which were found by scientists, scraped inscriptions were found. This was the first prerequisite for writing.

Further, we can conditionally distinguish several stages in the periodization of the history and culture of Ancient China. The first three dynasties belong to the stage before the formation, then there are many dynasties during the period of the Empire, and the last stage is the system without dynasties and modern China.

Xia Dynasty

The first known dynasty in the chronology and periodization of Ancient China is its founder was Yu, and it existed from 2205 to 1557 BC. According to some theories, the state was located in the entire east of Northern China or only in the north and center of Henan province.

The first rulers coped with their tasks of governing the state quite well. The main asset of the Xia era is the calendar of that time, which Confucius himself later admired.

However, a decline occurred, and it was caused by pressure from the clergy, and the spiritual rulers soon began to neglect their duties as the clergy. Calendar dates began to get confused, the periodization of Ancient China was confused, the social and political structure was lame. Emperor Li of the Shang state took advantage of this weakening and began the subsequent dynasty.

Shang-Yin Dynasty

The reign period begins in the 18th or 16th century BC. e. according to different theories, and ends in the 12th or 11th century BC. e.

In total, this dynasty has about 30 rulers. Li Tang (the founder of the dynasty) and his tribe believed in totemism. They adopted the custom of telling fortunes with bones from the Longshan culture, and they also used turtle shells for fortune telling.

During the reign of Shang-Yin, a centralized policy of governance reigned, led by the emperors of the dynasty.

The end of the period came when the Zhou tribes overthrew the ruler.

Zhou Dynasty

The Zhou are the last powerful dynasty of the first stage in the periodization of the history of the state of Ancient China before the formation of the Chinese Empire, which existed from the 9th to the 3rd centuries BC.

There are two stages: Western and Eastern Zhou. Western Zhou had its capital Zongzhou in the west, and its domains covered almost the entire Yellow River basin. The essence of the politics of that time was that the main emperor ruled in the capital, and his entourage (usually relatives) ruled over many fiefs into which the state was split. This led to civil strife and power struggles. But in the end, the stronger possessions enslaved the weaker ones.

At the same time, China defended itself from constant attacks by barbarians. This is why the ruler moved from the western capital to the eastern capital of Chengzhou in the state of Loyi in 770 BC, and the period of history of ancient China called Western Zhou began. The ruler's move meant a conditional renunciation of power and government.

All of China was split into several kingdoms: Yan, Zhao, Song, Zheng, Lu, Qi, Chu, Wei, Han, Qin, and into many small principalities, which the larger kingdoms conquered over time. In fact, some kingdoms were much more powerful in politics than the kingdom where the main ruler of Zhou was located. Qi and Qin were considered the most powerful, and it was their rulers who made the greatest contribution to politics and to the fight against barbarians.

Separately, it is worth highlighting the kingdom of Lu from these kingdoms. Education and writing reigned there, although politically Lu was not strong. It was here that Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, was born and lived. The end of the Zhou period is usually considered to be the year of the philosopher's death in 479 BC. Confucius wrote the history of Western Zhou in the chronicle Chunqiu. Many events of that time are known only thanks to these records. It is also known that Taoism began to penetrate into China during this period.

The end of the dynasty was when all the kingdoms fought among themselves for power. The most powerful won - Qin with the ruler Qin Shi Huang, who after the conquest was able to unite all of China and started a new dynasty. And the ruler of Zhou himself lost the status of a heavenly mandate.

Qin

Since the ruler of Qin united all of China, a new stage in the history and periodization of Ancient China began. The era of fragmentation gave way to the era of imperial rule with united parts of the entire state.

The era did not last long. Only from 221 to 207 BC, but it was Qin Shi Huang (the first emperor) who made a special contribution to the culture of Ancient China. During this period, the Great Wall of China was built - a special treasure of the state, the greatness of which is still amazing. Ruler Qin Shi Huang carried out many reforms. For example, monetary and judicial reform, and also writing reform. Under him, the construction of a unified road network began.

Despite all the advantages, historians highlight significant disadvantages, which were the reason that the Qin period did not last long. Qin Shi Huang was a supporter of legalism. Legalism is a philosophical school of that period, the essence of which was very harsh measures for people and punishments for any offenses and more. This influenced such a sharp leap in the form of victories over various tribes and the rapid construction of the Chinese Wall in order to protect against barbarians and enemy captivity. But it was precisely cruelty that led to people’s dislike and a sharp change of dynasties immediately after the death of Qin Shi Huang.

Han and Xin

The Han Empire lasted from 206 BC to 220 AD. It is divided into two periods: Western Han (from 206 BC to 9 AD) and Later (Eastern) Han (25-220 AD)

The Western Han had to deal with the devastation that followed the Qin period. Hunger and mortality reigned in the empire.

Ruler Liu Bang freed many state slaves who had become involuntary prisoners under the Qin for offenses. He also abolished harsh taxes and harsh penalties.

However, in 140-87 BC. e. the empire returned to despotism, as under the Qin ruler. The ruler of the Wu Di dynasty again introduced high taxes, which were levied even on children and the elderly (this led to frequent murders in families). By this time, the territories of China had expanded greatly.

Between the Western and Eastern Han was the Xin Dynasty, led by the ruler Wang Mang, who managed to overthrow the Eastern Han. He tried to strengthen his power by introducing many positive reforms. For example, a certain territory of land was assigned to each family. If it was higher than required, then part of it was given to the poor or people without land.

But at the same time, there was chaos with officials, because of which the treasury was empty, and taxes had to be greatly increased. This was a reason for people's dissatisfaction. Popular uprisings began, which also served as an advantage for the representatives of Wang Man, who was killed during the uprising called “Red Eyebrows.”

Liu Xiu was nominated as a candidate for the throne. He wanted to reduce people's hostility to government by lowering taxes and freeing slaves. The Western Han period began. This time also made a significant contribution to history. It was then that the Great Silk Road was established.

At the end of the second century, unrest broke out again among the people. The “Yellow Turbans” uprising began, which lasted almost 20 years. The dynasty was overthrown, and the period of the Three Kingdoms began.

Although the Han period was a period of growth, at the end of the era after the Twenty Years' War, a constant struggle began between the generals of the dynasty and other leaders. This led to further unrest in the empire and deaths.

Jin

The Jin era and subsequent periods can already be attributed to the Middle Ages, but let’s look at the very first dynasties to understand what the policies of Ancient China led to and how the rulers had to eliminate the consequences.

The population after the Han wars decreased several times. There were also cataclysms. Rivers began to change their courses, thereby causing floods and economic decline. The situation was aggravated by constant raids by nomads.

Cao Cao, who ended the Yellow Turban Rebellion, unified the fragmented north of China in 216. And in 220, his son Cao Pei founded the Wei Dynasty. At the same time, the states of Shu and Wu arose. And so the period of the Three Kingdoms began. Constant wars began between them, which aggravated the military-political situation inside China.

In 249, Sima Zhao became the head of Wei. And his son Sima Yan, when his father died, took the throne and founded the Jin dynasty. First, Wei conquered the state of Shu, and then Wu. The period of the Three Kingdoms came to an end, and the Jin era began (265-316). Soon the nomads conquered the north, and the capital had to be moved from Luoyang to southern China.

Sima Yan began to distribute land to his relatives. In 280, a decree was issued on the allotment system, the essence of which was that every person was entitled to a plot of land, but in return people had to pay the treasury. This was necessary to improve relations with ordinary people, replenish the treasury and improve the economy.

However, this did not entail an improvement in centralization, as expected, but vice versa. After the death of Sima Yan in 290, a struggle began between the owners of large estates - the relatives of the deceased ruler. It lasted 15 years, from 291 to 306. At the same time, in the north of the state, the positions of the nomads were strengthened. Gradually they settled along the rivers, began to grow rice and enslave entire settlements of people.

During the Jin period, as is known, the religion of Buddhism began to strengthen. Many monks and Buddhist temples appeared.

Sui

Only in 581, after a long period of unrest, did Zhou Yang Jiang manage to unite the north, fragmented by nomads. The reign of the Sui Dynasty begins. He then captures the state of Chen in the south and thereby unites all of China. His son Yang Di became involved in wars with some nations in Korea and Vietnam, created the Grand Canal to transport rice, and improved the Chinese Wall. But the people were in difficult conditions, which is why a new uprising began, and Jan Di was killed in 618.

Tian

Li Yuan founded a dynasty that lasted from 618 to 907. The empire reached its peak during this period. Li's rulers improved economic ties with other states. Cities and their numbers began to increase. They began to actively develop agricultural crops (tea, cotton). Especially in this regard, Li Yuan's son, Li Shimin, stood out, whose politics reached a new level. However, in the 8th century, the conflict between the military and the authorities at the center of the empire reached its peak. In 874, the Huang Chao War began, which lasted until 901, due to which the dynasty ended. In 907-960, the Chinese Empire was fragmented again.

State and social systems of Ancient China

The periodization of all periods of Ancient China can be considered as stages of history similar to each other in their structure. The social structure is based on collective farming. The main activities of people are cattle breeding and crafts (which were developed to a high level).

At the top of power was the aristocracy, below were slaves and peasants.

The ancestral heritage was clearly expressed. During the Shang-Yin period, each of the ruler's relatives was given a special title depending on how close they were. Each title provided its own privileges.

During the Yin and Western Zhou periods, land was issued only for use and farming, but not as private property. And from the Eastern Zhou period, land was already distributed for private ownership.

Slaves were first public and then became private. Their category usually included prisoners, very poor community members, vagabonds and others.

In the stages of periodization of Ancient China's social and state structure, one can highlight the fact that in the Yin era, the brother of the deceased ruler first inherited the throne, and in Zhou the title passed to the son from the father.

Under the ruler, a palace system of government reigned.

It is worth highlighting separately, speaking about the periodization of the history of the state and Ancient China: law already existed, but at the initial stage it was strongly intertwined with religious principles and ordinary ethics. Patriarchy reigned, elders and fathers were revered.

In the V-III centuries BC. e. law was an integral part with cruel punishments, while there was already legalism. And during the Han Dynasty, people again returned to Confucianism and the idea of ​​harmonious inequality of people depending on rank.

The first written sources of law date back to approximately 536 BC.

Philosophy

The philosophy of Ancient China is very different from the philosophy of any other European countries. If Christianity and Islam have God and life after death, then in Asian schools there was the principle of “here and now.” In China, they also called for kindness during life, but simply for harmony and well-being, and not under fear of punishment after death.

It was based on the trinity: heaven, earth and man himself. People also believed that there is Qi energy, and there should be harmony in everything. They distinguished the feminine and masculine principles: yin and yang, which complemented each other for harmony.

There are several main philosophical schools of that time: Confucianism, Buddhism, Mohism, Legalism, Taoism.

Thus, if we summarize what has been said, we can conclude: already before our era, Ancient China formulated a certain philosophy and adhered to some religions, which are still an integral part of the spiritual life of the population in China. At that time, all the main schools changed and only sometimes overlapped depending on the stage of periodization.

Culture of Ancient China: heritage, crafts and inventions

To this day, the Great Wall of China is considered one of the greatest assets of China. The most amazing thing here is that they were built under the control of the first emperor of Ancient China, Qin Shi Huang from the Qin dynasty. It was then that legalism and cruelty reigned towards the people who, under fear and pressure, built these truly great structures.

But great inventions include gunpowder, paper, printing and the compass.

It is believed that paper was invented by Cai Long in 105 BC. e. Its production required a special technology, which is still reminiscent of the current papermaking process. Before this period, people scraped writing on shells, bones, clay tablets and bamboo rolls. The invention of paper led to the invention of printing in a later period of our era.

The first semblance of a compass appeared in Ancient China during the Han Dynasty.

But there were countless crafts in Ancient China. Several thousand years BC. e. Silk began to be mined (the extraction technology of which remained secret for a long time), tea appeared, and pottery and bone products were made. A little later, the Great Silk Road appeared, they made drawings on silk, sculptures from marble, and paintings on the walls. And also in Ancient China, the well-known pagodas and acupuncture appeared.

Conclusion

The social and political structure of Ancient China (periodized from the Neolithic era up to the Han Dynasty) had its disadvantages and advantages. Subsequent dynasties adjusted the way politics was conducted. And the entire history of Ancient China can be described as periods of prosperity and decline, moving in a spiral. Moving upward, so the “bloomings” became more and more improved and better each time. The periodization of the history of Ancient China is a voluminous and interesting topic, which we discussed in the article.

CHINA IN THE III CENTURY BC - II CENTURY AD

Unification of China.

From the middle of the first millennium BC. e. The kingdom of Qin in northwestern China stands out. By the 3rd century. BC e. it becomes the most powerful of the Chinese states. The Qin Kingdom occupied a comfortable position. It was less threatened by nomad raids than other Chinese states. In the 3rd century. BC e. Iron was already widely used in the Qin kingdom. A plow with an iron share, an iron sickle and a shovel made the farmer's work easier and increased productivity. Important trade routes passed through the Qin lands. Trade also enriched the state.
The Qin kingdom had an army equipped with iron weapons.

Heavy, clumsy war chariots were replaced by mobile cavalry. In a stubborn struggle with other kingdoms in the IV-III centuries. BC e. Qin annexed their lands and united all of China.

The Qin king Qin Shi Huang declared himself the ruler of all China.
Qin Shi Huang divided the entire country into 36 regions, and placed special officials at the head of each region. They were watched by people who obeyed only the emperor. In an effort to stop the internecine struggle and disarm his opponents, Qin Shi Huang ordered the confiscation of all weapons in the country and the resettlement of 120 thousand noble families to the capital, where they were supervised. Throughout the country, uniform measures of weight, length, and a uniform style of hieroglyphs were introduced.
This contributed to the development of trade relations. People who called for the return of the previous tribal orders were persecuted. One day, the king ordered the execution of 460 of his opponents and the burning of all books with records of ancient legends and customs.
Qin Shi Huang took care of the construction of defensive structures. To protect the country from the increasing raids of nomads - the Huns - he ordered to combine into one whole all the fortifications begun in the 4th century. BC e. The Great Wall of China is being created. Later its length reached four thousand kilometers.
Tens of thousands of farmers and artisans flocked to build the Chinese Wall, royal palaces, and roads. Escaping duties and taxes,
many peasants fled to the mountains and steppes and rebelled. Slaves joined the free ones. Some rebel groups were led by noble people who sought to use the people's movement for their own purposes. During the uprising, Qin Shi Huang's successor was overthrown. In 206 BC. e. The power of the Han kings was established.

State of Han.

To strengthen their power, the Han kings carried out a number of reforms. The rights of the nobility are limited, and the construction of irrigation structures is expanded. Some concessions were also made to the farmers, with whose support the old Qin dynasty was overthrown. The land tax is reduced to one fifteenth of the harvest, and power in the villages is transferred to elected elders approved by officials.
Under the Han kings, China's trade with many nations was established. Silk, varnish products, carpets, and iron were exported to countries located west of China. The route connecting China with Western countries was called the Great Silk Road. Along it, herds of horses were driven to China and slaves were driven.
Trade brought large incomes to merchants. Many of the merchants, looking for an application for their wealth, bought land and became large landowners. In addition, they lent money for growth at high interest rates.
In the II century. BC e. Han troops, after stubborn battles, reconquered the lands from the Huns, pushing the latter to the north.

Endless wars required enormous expenses. Taxes and duties increased continuously. To pay off their debts, farmers were forced to sell their fields, houses and children. Peasant lands began to pass into the hands of moneylenders and large landowners. Debt slavery is developing. At the same time, the number of foreign slaves increases. They were driven in droves to special markets and sold in cattle pens. Slave labor was used in agriculture, crafts and trade.

The uprising of the "yellow armbands" and its significance.

The struggle of slaves and free poor people against cruel exploitation is reaching enormous intensity in China. It results in armed uprisings, people's wars of the oppressed against the oppressors.
Such a people's war was an uprising that began in 184 and lasted more than twenty years. It was called the Yellow Turban Rebellion because the rebels wore yellow headbands. The Zhang brothers led the uprising. The eldest of them preached a teaching called “The Path to Great Liberation.” He called on his supporters to destroy the existing order and create a new, fair and peaceful one. The rebels opened prisons, freed slaves, killed officials, and seized the property of the rich.
The tsarist troops were powerless against this popular movement. Large slave owners stopped taking the king into account. They themselves created armed units to fight the rebels. The nobility tried to prevent the rebels from uniting and defeated their detachments one by one. For almost a quarter of a century there was a struggle of the rebel people against the slave owners.
The winners brutally dealt with the rebels. A huge pyramid was made of one hundred thousand heads, which was an unprecedented monument to the bloody victory of the exploiters over the defeated people.
The uprisings of the free poor and slaves failed because they were not organized enough. The rebel groups had little connection with each other. The poor and slaves did not know how to organize state power after the victory, and believed that a good emperor could give them a happy life.
Popular uprisings weakened the slave system and the slave state in China. In 220, the Han Empire fell. China was divided into three kingdoms.

Ancient Chinese culture

In ancient times, writing in the form of hieroglyphs arose in China. There were several thousand hieroglyphs. To read them fluently, you had to study for a long time. Charter was available only to the rich.
The creation of writing made it possible to record wonderful works of oral folk art. Folk songs that truthfully reflect the feelings and experiences of ordinary people made up the collection “Book of Songs.”
Poems by the Chinese poet Qu Yuan (3rd century BC) have been preserved, exposing the corruption and selfishness of officials and calling for the defense of the homeland and the fight for justice.
In the second millennium BC. e. The Chinese created a calendar. In the II century. BC e. they invented a device that detected earthquakes. Chinese mathematicians performed the calculations necessary for construction of dams and other irrigation structures.
The Chinese knew a compass that helped caravans find their way among deserts and steppes.
Agricultural science grew out of the centuries-old experience of industrious Chinese farmers. The Chinese developed varieties of cultivated tea from wild tea bushes. The rice crop they borrowed from the south became widespread. The Chinese used the experience of the peoples of Central Asia in growing grapes.
Silk was obtained in China, which subsequently found wide use.
The Chinese learned to make paper from crushed tree bark, bamboo and rags. Paper has replaced bamboo tablets, inconvenient for writing, and expensive silk, on which they wrote before.

At the beginning of the 8th century. BC e. Clashes between the Zhou people and the Rong tribes, who inhabited the area of ​​the upper reaches of the Yellow River, became more frequent. By origin, the Rong were related to the Zhou people, but differed from them in their way of life and forms of economy. Decisive clashes with the semi-nomadic Rong tribes occurred during the reign of Yu-van (781-771 BC).

In 770 BC. e. the capital had to be moved east, to the area of ​​modern Luoyang. Period VIII - III centuries. BC e. therefore called Eastern Zhou.

In the 8th century BC e. nomadic tribes, called di in ancient Chinese sources, are consolidated; they raid the Zhuhou possessions north of the Yellow River. At the beginning of the 7th century. BC e. They moved south, devastating the lands on the left bank of the Yellow River in its middle reaches. Di cross the Yellow River and attack the Zhuhou possessions in the immediate vicinity of the Zhou capital.

Even the most powerful kingdoms have to reckon with di. Some of the Chinese rulers prefer an alliance with the di, others are trying to use them in the fight against their opponents. So, in 636 BC. e. The Zhou Xiang Wang intended to provoke an attack on the kingdom of Zheng, which refused to obey him. But the Di took the side of Zheng and defeated the army of Wang, who was forced to temporarily leave the capital.

In the relations between the population of Ancient China and neighboring tribes, the discrepancy between political and ethnic relations is clearly evident. If "in the Yin and early Zhou times the contrast between "us and them" was based solely on political criteria (those who recognized the power of the wang were part of "our" community, those who disobeyed his authority automatically became a "stranger"), then in the 8th-7th centuries BC .the idea arises of the existence of a certain cultural-genetic community of all “barbarians.” The ancient Chinese began to oppose themselves to the “barbarians,” denoting their community with the term huaxia (or zhuxia).

According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, this distinction was based on kinship relationships. It was believed that the inhabitants of the kingdoms located in the middle reaches of the Yellow River were related to each other, so even if one of them opposed the Zhou Wang, it did not cease to be Huaxia. Accordingly, a political union with the “barbarians” did not mean that they ceased to be such. This enduring difference between the Huaxia and the “barbarians” is clearly expressed in the following words of a famous figure of the 7th century. BC e. Guan Zhong: “Barbarians are jackals and wolves, they cannot make concessions. Zhuxia are relatives, and they cannot be left in trouble!”

After the capital was moved to the east, the power of the van noticeably weakened. He still personifies the unity of the Celestial Empire, but practically often does not interfere in the relations between the Zhuhou, whose possessions are becoming more and more independent. The territory of the “capital region”—the domain of the Zhou ruler—is sharply reduced. Part of it was given away to neighboring kingdoms - Zheng, Jin, etc., and some areas were captured by the kingdom of Chu. The king's treasury is running low. Traditional tribute from Zhuhou begins to arrive increasingly irregularly. There comes a time when, after the death of one of the Zhou Wangs, his heir does not have the means to perform the rituals required by custom and the funeral is postponed for seven years.

The authority of the ruling house of Zhou was also adversely affected by internal strife, which flared up repeatedly in the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Wang did not have the opportunity to prevent violations of the tradition-sanctioned order of succession to power and was forced to turn to the Zhuhou dependent on him for help.

The invasion of nomads on the Central Chinese Plain and changes in the relationship between the Van and the rulers dependent on him largely predetermined the essence of the new political situation that arose in the 7th century. BC e. and impossible in the previous time. One of the largest Zhuhou achieves a dominant position and becomes a “hegemon”. To achieve this goal, the exalted ruler used two standard slogans: “make everyone respect the van” and “repel the threat from the barbarians.”

Struggle for hegemony

The first ancient Chinese kingdom to achieve hegemony on the Central China Plain was Qi, located in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. King Qi was officially declared hegemon in 650 BC. e. at the Congress of Rulers (Zhuhou).

After his death, the Qi kingdom lost its position as hegemon. It soon becomes another large kingdom - Jin. The years of the greatest power of the Jin kingdom were the reign of Wen Gong (636-628 BC).

Wen Gong's fate is unusual. His mother was a woman from the Rong tribe. Having left the borders of his native kingdom because of rivalry with his brothers, young Wen Gong fled to the nomads of Di, among whom he spent many years. Thus, at the head of the unification of the ancient Chinese kingdoms was a man who, by origin and upbringing, was more of a “barbarian” than a Hu-Asya. This is how Wen Gong, in essence, remained in the memory of his descendants: he “walked in a shirt made of coarse material, in a sheepskin coat, tied his sword with a rawhide belt, and nevertheless extended his power to all the lands in the middle of the four seas.”

At the end of the 7th century. BC e. A split occurs among the nomads who captured the middle reaches of the Yellow River. This prompted Jin to intervene. In the spring of 594 BC. e. in an 8-day battle, Di's main forces were defeated. The captured nomads were partly included in the Jin army, partly turned into slaves. The dominance of the “barbarians” in a large area of ​​the Yellow River basin, near the Zhou capital, was ended.

The rivalry between Jin and the southern kingdom of Chu constituted the main line of political history in the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Expanding its territory at the expense of the small kingdoms between the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, Chu began to interfere in the relations between the main hereditary possessions on the Central China Plain. At the end of the 7th century. BC e. The ruler of Chu accepted the title of Wang - this was an open challenge to those kingdoms that fought for hegemony under the slogan of “respect” for the Zhou Son of Heaven. Chu Wang becomes the first hegemon not to recognize the supreme supremacy of Zhou.

Having defeated the Jin, Chu begins to dictate its terms to the ancient Chinese kingdoms. The Jin managed to achieve revenge only in 575 BC. e.

At the beginning of the 5th century. BC e. The struggle for hegemony intensifies between two kingdoms that previously took almost no part in political events: the kingdoms of Wu and Yue, which occupied lands in the lower reaches of the Yangtze. The bulk of the population here was significantly different from the “HuaXia people.” The inhabitants of Wu and Yue had the custom of tattooing their bodies and cutting their hair short, which sharply differed from the ancient Chinese. Fishing and marine crafts played a large role in their lives. In an effort to gain an additional chance in the fight against Chu, the ruler of Jin entered into an alliance with Wu and sent his military advisers there. However, even after this, the residents of Wu preferred combat tactics on water to chariots, where they felt more confident than on land.

In 493 BC. e. Ruler Wu defeated Yue, after which he undertook a series of campaigns to the north. Having defeated the Qi army and defeated Lu and Song, he in 482 BC. e. achieved recognition of Wu's hegemony. About ten years after this, it was Yue's turn, who defeated his rival's troops and subjugated most of the northern kingdoms. Yue's hegemony ends the Chunqiu period; with the division of the Jin kingdom into three independent states of Zhao, Wei, Han (403 BC), the Zhanguo (“Warring States”) period begins in the history of ancient Chinese society.

Shifts in the socio-economic structure of society

Zhanguo is an era of violent social upheavals, fundamental changes in many areas of social life in Ancient China. The prerequisite for this were important shifts in the development of productive forces: the spread of iron, the appearance of arable tools and draft animals, and the development of irrigation.

The first mentions of iron are found in ancient Chinese texts of the late 6th century. BC e. In particular, the chronicle “Zozhu-an” reports that in the kingdom of Jin in 513 BC. e. an iron tripod with the text of laws was cast. The earliest archaeological finds of iron tools date back to the 5th century. BC e. In the 4th century. BC e. Iron tools are becoming quite widespread in agriculture.

The use of draft arable tools such as the rala with an iron tip made a genuine revolution in agricultural technology. With the help of such tools, it turned out to be possible to cultivate not only floodplain lands, but also hard soils on high coastal terraces. The draft power of cattle dramatically increased labor productivity. “Animals that served as sacrifices in temples now work in the fields” is how this important change in the state of productive forces is characterized by the author of one of the ancient Chinese works. If earlier irrigation work was carried out almost exclusively for the purpose of controlling floods (traces of drainage canals have been preserved in the Yin fortifications in Zhengzhou and Wuanyang), then as the cultivated areas expanded, canals began to be used on an ever wider scale for artificial irrigation.

The expansion of arable land, increased productivity, and a sharp increase in the total social product predetermined the crisis of the system of land ownership and land use that existed in Zhou China in the 11th-6th centuries. BC e. Previous forms of land ownership, based on a hierarchy of social ranks, are gradually becoming obsolete.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. A new system of land ownership is being drawn up. The collapse of the previous land tenure system was associated with the emergence of private property based on the right to alienate land through purchase and sale. In this regard, in the 6th century. BC e. in a number of ancient Chinese kingdoms there was a transition to a completely new form of alienation of the produced product - a land tax. According to Sima Qian, the first land tax, calculated depending on the area of ​​cultivated land, was introduced in the kingdom of Lu in 594 BC. e. Then such a tax began to be levied in Chu and Zheng.

Crafts and trade were undergoing qualitative changes at this time. In the social system of Zhou society at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. artisans were equal in status to commoners. The same was the situation for those involved in exchanges between certain related groups. These professions were hereditary: “Children of artisans become artisans, children of merchants become merchants, children of farmers become farmers.” The spread of iron tools and the general progress of technology stimulated the individualization of handicraft production and the growth of the well-being of individual artisans. This contributed to the large-scale use of slaves as a productive force in crafts and trade. As a result, individual artisans and merchants, who were nominally at the bottom of the social hierarchy, could actually turn out to be wealthier than some members of the nobility. Thus, the basic rule of the traditional social system was violated: whoever is noble is rich; whoever is ignorant is poor.

Ideological struggle in the VI-III centuries. BC e.

What are the ways and methods to govern the Celestial Empire in conditions when “you can be noble, but poor”? This question worried many thinkers of that time. Differences in the approach to solving this problem predetermined the emergence of several philosophical schools. Ancient Chinese philosophers were interested not so much in the laws of nature as a whole, but in socio-political and socio-ethical issues. It is no coincidence, therefore, that the rapid rise of philosophical thought in Ancient China is associated with the VI-III centuries. BC e., when changes in the social system urgently required an understanding of the most important principles that underlay the relationships between people in society. In the VI-V centuries. BC e. The greatest differences in the approach to solving these problems were found in the teachings of two philosophical schools - Confucians and Mohists.

The emergence of Confucian teachings played an exceptional role in the history of ideology not only in Ancient China, but also in many neighboring countries of East Asia.

The central place in the ethical and political doctrine of Confucius (Kong Qiu, 551-479 BC) is occupied by the doctrine of the “noble man” (jun zi). Confucius was alien to the ideals of the new social stratum of the propertied, striving for profit and enrichment. Contrasting them with the principles of morality and duty, Confucius turns to the orders of the past that he idealized. This is a deep contradiction in the system of views of the ancient philosopher. Confucian concepts of humanity (zhen), loyalty (zhong), respect for elders (xiao), compliance with the norms of relationships between people (li) represent positive universal values ​​expressed through the categories of a historically doomed social system. Far from striving for personal well-being (“Eating coarse food and drinking only water, sleeping with your elbow under your head—there is joy in this! And wealth and nobility obtained through dishonest means are like floating clouds for me”), finding satisfaction in the process itself knowledge of reality (“Learning and constantly repeating what you have learned - isn’t this joyful?”), Confucius at the same time expresses thoughts that are a call for the restoration of a way of life that has become a thing of the past. It is characteristic that Confucius approached the solution of political problems without making a fundamental distinction between the state and the family. Applying the model of relationships between family members to the state meant the requirement to preserve inviolably those orders when “a ruler is a ruler, a subject is a subject, a father is a father, a son is a son.”

Another outstanding ancient Chinese thinker, Mo Tzu (Mo Di, turn of the 5th-4th centuries BC), approached the contradictions of his contemporary society from a different position. All social ills, in his opinion, stem from the “separateness”) preached by the Confucians. “Nowadays,” wrote Mo Di, “the rulers of kingdoms know only about love for their kingdom and do not love other kingdoms... Nowadays, the heads of families know only about love for their family, but do not love other families... If there is no mutual love between people, then mutual hatred will certainly appear.” Therefore, Mo Di puts forward the thesis about the need for “universal love”, which will allow us to restore order in the Celestial Empire.

Speaking against the family and kinship isolation of members of society, Mo Di sharply criticized the custom of transferring privileges and positions by inheritance. Calling to “honor the wise,” Mo Di attacked the hereditary nobility and considered it useful to have such a state of affairs when “an originally low person was exalted and became noble, and an initially beggar would be exalted and became rich.”

At the same time, in contrast to the Confucians, who attached great importance to the ritual side of human culture, Mo Di argued that culture is necessary only to provide a person with clothing, food and housing. Anything that goes beyond meeting basic human needs is unnecessary and even harmful. Therefore, in particular, Mo Di considered it necessary to abolish music that distracts people from creating material values.

A number of important provisions of Mohist teaching were borrowed by philosophers of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e., who created the “legist” school. If the Confucians saw a means of pacifying the Celestial Empire in improving the socio-ethical side of relationships between people, then the legalists considered the law to be such a means (hence the name of this philosophical school). Only the law, manifested in rewards and punishments, is able to ensure order and prevent unrest. Legalists compare the law to a tool with which a craftsman makes a product. Law is necessary primarily for the subordination of the people to the power of the ruler. It is no coincidence, the legalists emphasized, “even before, only those who saw their first task in establishing order in their own people could establish order in their own people, and those who considered it necessary to first defeat their own people defeated powerful enemies.” Legalists saw the ultimate goal of applying the law as ensuring the absolute power of the ruler.

If the Confucians advocated for a return to the ideal orders of the past, and the coins and legists advocated for the consistent destruction of the old system of social and government structure, then representatives of the Taoist school took a special and very unique position on this issue. Lao Tzu is considered the founder of this philosophical school, but we do not have reliable information about him. The Treatise on Tao and Te (Daodejing) is attributed to the authorship of Laozi, who was supposedly an older contemporary of Confucius. Supporters of this teaching believed that everything in the world is determined by the existence of a certain “way” (Tao), acting against the will of people. Man is unable to comprehend this path (“The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the true Tao”). Therefore, the best way not to make mistakes in governing the state is, from the point of view of Taoists, the “inaction” of the ruler, his refusal to actively intervene in the predetermined course of historical events.

Shang Yang's reforms

In the 4th century. BC e. In many ancient Chinese kingdoms, socio-political reforms were carried out aimed at the final destruction of the outdated system of social relations. The initiators of these reforms were representatives of the legalist school, most of whom sought not only to formulate their point of view on methods for solving the social problems of our time, but also to implement it in practice. Quite a lot of information has been preserved about one of them, Shang Yan, who achieved reforms in the kingdom of Qin (mainly from the “Historical Notes” of Sima Qian and the treatise “The Book of the Ruler of Shang,” attributed to Shang Yan).

Qin, the westernmost of all the ancient Chinese kingdoms, for a long time did not play a significant role in the struggle for supremacy on the Central Chinese Plain. Qin was an economically weak kingdom and did not have a strong army. Its ruler accepted Shang Yang's proposal to carry out reforms that would lead to a strengthening of the state. By 359 BC. e. include the first decrees on reforms prepared by Shang Yang. They provided for: 1) the introduction of a new territorial division of the population into “heels” and “tens” of families connected by mutual responsibility; 2) punishment of those who had more than two adult sons who continued to live under the same roof with their parents; 3) encouragement of military merit and prohibition of blood feud; 4) encouragement of farming and weaving; 5) the elimination of the privileges of representatives of the hereditary nobility who did not have military merit. The second series of reforms in Qin dates back to 350 BC. e. An administrative division into counties was introduced; residents of the Qin kingdom were allowed to freely sell and buy land; The system of weights and measures was unified.

The legalization of the purchase and sale of land, the abolition of the privileges of the hereditary aristocracy, the forced fragmentation of large families, the introduction of a single administrative division - all these measures dealt a decisive blow to the traditional system of social hierarchy. To replace it, Shang Yang introduced a system of ranks, which were assigned not on the basis of hereditary law, but for military merit. Later it was allowed to purchase ranks for money.

Although Shang Yang himself paid for his activities with his life, his reforms were successfully implemented. They not only contributed to the strengthening of the Qin kingdom, which was gradually emerging as one of the leading ancient Chinese states, but were of significant importance for the development of the entire ancient Chinese society.

Shang Yang's reforms undoubtedly met the needs of the progressive development of society. Having finally undermined the dominance of the old aristocracy, they opened the way to overcoming the contradiction between nobility and wealth: from now on, any member of society who possessed wealth had the opportunity to achieve an appropriate social position in society. Reforms of the 4th century BC e. were a powerful impetus for the development of private property and commodity-money relations. The bulk of farmers cultivating the land became small landowners after these reforms. At the same time, Shang Yang's reforms stimulated the development of slavery.

At the beginning of the 8th century. Clashes between the Zhou people and the Rong tribes became more frequent. Decisive clashes with them occur during the reign of Yu-wan (781-771 BC)

In 770 his son Ping-wan moves the capital to the east, which is why the period of 8-3 centuries. called Eastern Zhou. However, here too the state is subject to attacks - already from the Di tribes. In 636 BC. Xiang Wang intended to provoke an attack by the Di on the kingdom of Zheng, which refused to obey him, but the Di took the side of Zheng and defeated the army of Wang, who was forced to temporarily leave the capital.

In the 8th-7th centuries. BC. the idea arises of the existence of a certain cultural and genetic community of all “barbarians” (in contrast to the Yin and early Zhou times, when peoples were divided into subordinate and non-subordinate). The ancient Chinese began to oppose themselves to the “barbarians,” denoting their community with the term huaxia (or zhuxia). According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, this division was based on kinship relations (all residents of the kingdoms located in the middle reaches of the Yellow River are relatives, even if they refuse to obey the Wang, they remain so).

After moving the capital to the east, the power of the wang weakens: he practically does not interfere in the relationships of the zhuhou (landowners), who are becoming more and more independent. The territory is shrinking, the treasury is becoming scarce, and tribute begins to arrive irregularly. There comes a time when, after the death of Huan-wang, his heir does not have funds for his funeral and they are postponed for 7 years.

In the 7th century BC. one of the Zhuhou achieves a dominant position and becomes a “hegemon”. From this period, the struggle for hegemony began between the kingdoms. The first kingdom to achieve hegemony was Qi. Its ruler Huan Gong was officially proclaimed hegemon in 650. at the Zhuhou Congress. After his death, the kingdom loses its hegemony, and another kingdom, Jin, takes its place. The reign of his Wang Hsien-kung was marked by the expansion of territory. After his death, his son Wen-gong (636-628) came to power, whose reign is considered the highest flowering of the kingdom. At the end of the 7th century. A split occurs among the Di nomads, which served as a pretext for the Jin kingdom to intervene in the spring of 594. Di's main forces were defeated (some were included in the Jin army, some were turned into slaves).

The main line of political history of the 7th-6th centuries. BC. - Rivalry between the kingdoms of Jin and Chu. At the end of the 7th century. the ruler of Chu Chuang-wang (613-591) took the title of wang and became the first hegemon not to recognize the supreme supremacy of Zhou. The battle of Bi (597) played a decisive role in the relationship between Chu and Jin, where Jin was defeated and achieved revenge again only many years later, having won the battle in 575.

At the beginning of the 5th century. the struggle for hegemony between the kingdoms of Wu and Yue intensifies (the inhabitants tattooed their bodies and cut their hair short, which sharply differed from the ancient Chinese). In 493 ruler Wu defeated Yue, then defeated the kingdoms of Qi, Lu and Song, and in 482. achieved hegemony. After about 10 years, Yue takes this position. Yue's hegemony ends the Chunqiu period; with the division of the Jin kingdom into three independent states of Zhao, Wei and Han, the period of Zhanguo (“Warring States”) begins.

During this period, iron becomes widespread. Animals used for sacrifice become a draft force, agricultural productivity increases, and it becomes possible to cultivate not only the land in the floodplains. As cultivated areas expand, canals are being used for artificial irrigation (previously they were used to prevent floods). Changes in agriculture resulted in a crisis in the system of land tenure and land use. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. a new system is being drawn up. There was a transition to a completely new form of alienation of the produced product - to the land tax, which was calculated depending on the area of ​​\u200b\u200bcultivated land. It was first introduced in the kingdom of Lu, then in Chu and Zheng.

Crafts and trade are undergoing qualitative changes. If earlier artisans were classified as commoners, now some of them are beginning to enrich themselves, becoming wealthier than some members of the nobility. Thus, the basic rule of the traditional social system was violated: “He who is noble is rich; he who is ignorant is poor.”

It is no coincidence that this period is associated with the rise of philosophical thought in China, when changes in the social system required an understanding of the principles that underlay the relationships between people in society. In the 6th-5th centuries. BC. the greatest differences on this issue were in the teachings of two philosophical schools - Confucians and Mohists.

The emergence of Confucian teachings played a role not only in the ideology of Ancient China, but also in many neighboring countries. The central place in the doctrine of Confucius (Kong Qiu, 551-479) is occupied by the doctrine of the “noble man”. Confucian concepts of humanity, loyalty, and respect for elders are positive human values ​​expressed through the categories of a historically doomed social order. Confucius expresses thoughts that are a call for the restoration of a way of life that has become a thing of the past.

Mo Tzu (Mo Di, turn of the 5th-4th centuries BC) approached the contradictions of society from a different perspective. In his opinion, all social ills occur due to the isolation of society. He preaches “universal love.” Speaking against family and kinship isolation, he sharply criticized the custom of transferring privileges and positions by inheritance, saying that it was necessary to honor the wise.

In contrast to Confucianism, which attached great importance to culture, Mo Tzu argued that it was needed only to provide a person with housing, clothing and food. Anything that goes beyond meeting basic human needs is unnecessary and even harmful.

A number of the provisions of Mohism were borrowed by philosophers of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC, who created the “legist” school. The legalists considered the means of pacifying the Celestial Empire to be law, which was capable of ensuring order through rewards and punishments. Legalists saw the ultimate goal of applying the law as ensuring the absolute power of the ruler. Representatives of the Taoist school, whose founder is considered Lao Tzu, occupied a special position. Supporters of this school believed that everything in the world is determined by the existence of a certain “way” (Tao), which acts against the will of man. Therefore, the best way not to make mistakes in governing the state is the “inaction” of the ruler, his refusal to actively interfere in the predetermined course of history.

In the 4th century BC. In many ancient Chinese kingdoms, reforms were carried out aimed at the final destruction of the outdated system of social relations. The initiators of these reforms were representatives of the legalist school. Much information has been preserved about one of them, Shang Yan, who achieved reforms in the kingdom of Qin. The Qin state was economically underdeveloped and did not have a strong army. Ruler Xiao-kung accepted Shang Yang's proposal to carry out reforms that should have led to the strengthening of the kingdom. The first decrees date back to 359. BC. They provided:

Introduction of a new territorial division of the population into “heels” and “tens” of families connected by mutual responsibility.

Punishment of those who had more than two adult sons who continued to live under the same roof with their parents.

Encouragement of military merit and prohibition of blood feud.

Encouragement of farming and weaving.

Elimination of the privileges of representatives of the hereditary nobility who did not have military merit.

The second series of reforms (350) introduced administrative division into counties, legalized the purchase and sale of land, and unified the system of weights and measures. A new system of ranks was also introduced, which were awarded based on military merit rather than on hereditary rights. Later, the acquisition of rank for money was allowed. Thanks to the reforms, the ancient Chinese state of Qin not only strengthened, but also moved to a leading position; they also served as an impetus for the development of commodity-money relations and stimulated the development of slavery.

Hello, dear readers! Today you will get acquainted with the history of the development of a state that has existed longer than any other country in the world. Chinese history is divided into four main periods. It influenced the East Asian regions, South Asia, and further afield.

The name of the country

The name of the country was first associated with the Khitans who lived in its northern part, and came into the Russian language from the languages ​​of the Central Asian peoples. Then it spread to the entire Chinese state. In the Middle East and Western Europe, the basis of the name was the word “chin”, which the Persians and Tajiks used to call the kingdom of Qin (in distorted pronunciation also Shin, Jina, Hina).

Interestingly, the word “China” is also associated with porcelain, first brought from there by Marco Polo. And the Chinese themselves have many names for their country:

• Han,
• Zhong Guo,
• Qin,
• Zhong Hua et al.

They are associated with the names of dynasties, location and other points.

Most Ancient China

The first islands of civilization appeared in the country in ancient times, in its eastern part, the most suitable for living and farming, with its plains and lowlands. Since the largest rivers originate in the western part of the country and flow to the east, the population was mainly concentrated in the basins of the Yellow River, Yangtze and Xijiang. Ancient China was rich in forests and minerals. The vegetation pleased with its richness and enormous diversity, and among the representatives of the fauna the following were noted:

• the Bears,
• tigers,
• wild cats,
• wild boars,
• foxes,
• deer,
• raccoons.

Chinese engraving

Ethnic Chinese lived in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. But the composition of the population was extremely diverse. The tribes that made it up belonged to the following language groups:

• Sino-Tibetan,
• Mongolian,
• Tungus-Manchu,
• Turkic

And now fifty-six nationalities coexist in China, but one of them - Han makes up 92%, and the rest - 8%.

The people of China are the Han people

Primitive people appeared here about fifty thousand years BC. They lived in clans that were formed from their mother. In everyday life they used products made of bones, stone, shells and wood. They had summer and winter caves in different places. The primitive Chinese knew how to hollow out boats from wood and make “utensils” for carrying food.

Ten thousand years BC, the last ice age ended and the development of civilization began. The Chinese who settled near the Yellow River began to build houses, domesticate animals, and process grain. This period was called the Neolithic. He laid the foundation for the development of weaving, making ceramics, and spinning.

Yangshao culture

The Yangshao culture is famous for its painted pottery with primitive patterns, the most complex of which is the image of fish and masks. At this time, people lived in dugouts with a fireplace and, later, in above-ground dwellings. Corrals were built for livestock, and supplies were kept in barns.

It is known that already in the time of Yangshao, the Chinese bred dogs for different purposes: some to help in the household, others to obtain meat.

The first workshops appeared, where tools, jewelry, weapons, and pottery were made. The materials for their manufacture are still stone, shells, wood, and animal bones. The Yangshao culture existed until the end of the third millennium BC.

Ceramics of the Yangshao culture

Lunshan culture

Then black and gray ceramics without painting appear. This time period is called the Longshan culture. Clay products are already made using a potter's wheel, and metal objects also appear. Settlements made of round huts, with a stove inside, are surrounded by ramparts, which are reinforced with a palisade.

Chinese ceramics of the Longshan culture

Animal husbandry and agriculture become priority occupations; preference is given to breeding horses, pigs, bulls, goats, and sheep. Scapulimancy - divination on bones - is a distinctive feature in spiritual culture.

Shan-Yin era

From the middle of the second millennium, the Bronze Age begins - the era of Shan-Yin. It is marked by the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the strengthening of slave relations. Slaves are mainly prisoners captured during civil strife.

Property inequality is becoming more pronounced. During this period, the country experiences influences from the outside, due to which it rapidly develops in all spheres of life:

• bronze casting reaches a high level,
• hieroglyphic writing appears,
• palaces are being built
• improving stone carving skills,
• weapons will be improved.

The era of Shan-Yin. Bronze elephant

Ancient China

At the same time, the first Chinese proto-state, Shang, emerged. His foreign policy aimed at peaceful coexistence with surrounding tribes and the bloodless annexation of new territories. The state was divided into zones, in the main of which lived the ruler - Van.

The Shans were farmers, artisans, bred silkworms, mastered the art of irrigation, and knew how to build by compacting earth into formwork. They had war chariots, numerous well-trained warriors and weapons:

• bows with bamboo arrows,
• slings,
• battle axes,
• spears,
• daggers.

But even this did not save Shang from being conquered by the Zhou tribe. And at the end of the second millennium, the Zhou era began, which lasted eight hundred years. Only three hundred of these rulers had real power. From the 12th to the 8th century there was Western Zhou, and then, until the 3rd century BC, Eastern Zhou.

During this era, statehood is strengthened, a bureaucratic system is formed, and the management system is improved. There appeared ranks and settlements on a territorial basis - And. Zhou people were not allowed to drink wine. Those found guilty of this were executed personally by the ruler.

Zhou era, China

Noble people could receive one of five titles. They could be granted one of four types of external possessions or internal ones. The owners of external possessions were loyal to the wang, but pursued a fairly independent policy, and the owners of internal ones were the highest officials of the Dafu. Possession was returned when the official left his place of duty.

The stratum of slaves was numerous in this era. In addition to captivity, it was possible to fall into it as a result of punishment and by inheritance, since slaves could have a family.

In beliefs, the priority was the veneration of the deceased ancestors of the rulers and the cult of Heaven. Animism, witchcraft and healing were popular among the lower classes. Now they began to tell fortunes using yarrow stems.

Knowledge of rituals, ceremonies and etiquette rules was mandatory for the nobility. But it was also possible for a representative of the lower classes to occupy some position if he possessed the above skills. The Zhou era also left behind a developed criminal code. For any of the three thousand crimes one could receive one of the following punishments:

• a mark applied to the face with ink,
• cutting off the nose, legs or head,
• castration or, if the criminal is a woman, turning her into a slave.

Chinese engraving

Since the 18th century, various kinds of problems began to brew in Zhou. There was a need for ideological reform. Ruler Zhou Gong put forward the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven, which justified the change of dynasties and was dominant in Chinese political principles for several millennia.

The Shans' belief in the spirits of their ancestors - Shang-di and the Zhou people in Heaven was transformed into the fact that Shang-di became Heaven, and the supreme ruler on Earth became the Son of Heaven, and has been called that way since then. And for the rest of the people, the concept of “de” was presented: Heaven has placed grace in each of them, and it should be developed, but it can also be lost if you do not worship Shan-di.

The Mandate of Heaven determined what the ruler must do and contained grounds for his removal from power within the framework of justice. It was the basis of Chinese statehood until the 20th century. The Chinese called the country Tianxia - the Celestial Empire, and the Son of Heaven, their ruler, Tian Zi.

But let's go back to ancient times. When Western Zhou was plundered by nomads, the heir to the throne moved and founded Eastern Zhou. The time of bloody wars and acute political struggle between the kingdoms and within their structural units began. Since the Zhou era coincided with the Iron Age, new weapons appeared: swords, crossbows and halberds.

The peasants suffered the most from the turbulent times, so their uprisings and riots were frequent. The slaves also rebelled. This important period was called Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn), after a Chinese chronicle spanning several centuries that Confucius edited. , as well as legalism, mohism and played an important role in solving the accumulated problems.

State of Zhou

In the 6th century, representatives of about ten kingdoms gathered at a congress to resolve the issue of civil strife. After its end, the strife gradually began to subside, a tendency towards unification arose, and China began to turn into an empire.

Since the 5th century, the era of the Warring States - Zhanguo - was marked by the rivalry of the seven strongest kingdoms:

• Zhao,
• and Han.

Among them, the most powerful was the first. It was many times larger than the other kingdoms in area and had reserves of timber, gold, tin, copper and iron. Crafts have received sufficient development here. Zhanguo was the heyday of Chu and all of Southern China.

Around 900 BC. The state of Qin arises. It had fertile lands, natural protection of the territory in the form of mountain ranges and river beds. Important trade routes passed through the territory, and the state performed intermediary functions in trade between the Chinese and Asian kingdoms.

The kingdom became famous for the reforms of Shang Yang, it captured the territories of the Zhou people, and the Zhou era sank into oblivion. In 221 BC. e. all of China submits to this kingdom, and its ruler Ying Zheng forms a new Qin dynasty and declares himself its first emperor - Shi Huangdi. Strengthening the northern borders, the Qin people built the Great Wall of China, which at that time was about five thousand kilometers long.

Qin Shi Huangdi (258 BC - 210 BC) was the Chinese emperor of the Qin kingdom. Bringing an end to the Warring States era.

After the death of Shi Huangdi, his dynasty fell some time later. And in 202, Liu Bang led the new Han dynasty. It was interrupted by the interregnum, and therefore Han before it is called Early or Western, and after it - Later or Eastern.

At this time, the Great Silk Road begins to operate, and it travels from India to China. After the death of the most famous Emperor Wu Di, a period of stagnation of the kingdom began, and Wang Mang ascended the throne as a result of a palace coup. He tried to carry out reforms aimed at strengthening the state and weakening the nobility, but was killed by the rebels.

His endeavors were continued by Emperor Liu Xiu, also known as Guan Wu Di. The measures they took - he distributed land to ordinary people and lowered taxes - brought the country out of crisis and contributed to its prosperity. But nevertheless, the dynasty fell in 220, largely thanks to the “yellow bandages” movement - popular uprisings.

Guan Wu Di (13.01.5 BC - 29.03.57 AD). Chinese Emperor of the Han Empire

Conclusion

At this point, friends, we will interrupt our story, but it will continue. You will learn about the last two intense periods in the development of the Celestial Empire.