Political history of the Parthian kingdom. Encyclopedia Borders of the Parthian Empire on the map

PARTHIAN KINGDOM state, which arose ca. 250 BC e. to the South and South-East. from the Caspian Sea as a result of the weakening of the power of the Seleucids in their east. satrapies and invasions of Parthia by the Saka nomadic tribe of the Parns (Dakhs); existed until the 20s. 3rd century n. e. According to tradition, the first king P. c. was the head of the Parns, Arshak, the founder of the Arshakid dynasty. In 239238, the Parni defeated the satrap of Parthia Andragoras, who had previously broken away from the Seleucids, and captured Parthiena, Apavarktikena, Astauena and other regions of Parthia, as well as Hyrcania. Seleucus II, after an unsuccessful campaign in 232231, was forced to recognize the power of Tiridates I (Arshak’s brother and successor) over all of Parthia. The capital of the new state became Hekatompylos (to the southwest of modern Damgana), later the royal residences were also Ecbatana, Seleucia (on the Tigris) and Ctesiphon, but the ancestral tombs of the Arsacids until the 1st century. n. e. were in Nisa (modern Bagir, 18 km north-west of Ashgabat). The Parni were assimilated by the "Parthians" - the indigenous population of Parthia, and adopted their culture, the Parthians. language and local beliefs.

Ext. politics and borders of P. c. were determined by relations with neighbors Seleucids and (from the 1st century BC) Rome in the west, Greco-Bactria and nomadic tribes in the east. In 209 Antiochus III invaded Parthia and took Hecatompylus, but was soon to conclude a peace treaty that preserved the Arsacid power over Parthia. Under Mithridates I [ca. 170 138/37] boundaries of P. c. were expanded to the east at the expense of Bactria and to the west, where by the middle. 2nd century BC e. the former possessions of the Seleucids turned into a number of small states. In 161155 he captured Media, in 141 Seleucia on the Tigris, was proclaimed “king of Babylon”, took Uruk, and then Elymaida with Susa. P. c. became a major power, covering almost all of Iran and all of Mesopotamia. Further expansion to the west was stopped by the movements of nomadic tribes in the east. borders of P. c. In the 30-20s. 2nd century BC e. P. c. waged a difficult struggle with the Sakas, under whose pressure the Greco-Bactrian kingdom fell, and at the same time with the Seleucids, who made a last attempt to restore their dominance, which ended with the defeat of Antiochus VII in 129. In the East, the Sakas devastated the north. region of Parthia and, turning to the south, occupied Drangiana. Under Mithridates II [c. 123 approx. 87] Drangiana, occupied by the Sakas, was converted into Parthians. satrapy of Sakastan; part of P. c. Areya and Margiana also entered. Continuing the Achaemenid tradition, Mithridates II took the title "king of kings." During this period, diplomatic relations were established. connections with China. Into the sphere of influence of P. c. Armenia was included, where the Parthians placed Tigranes II on the throne. The struggle of Rome with "Mithridates VI", who was supported by Tigran II, led to the first contact between the Church and Rome. According to the agreement of 92 BC. e., the Euphrates was recognized as the border between the two powers.

The first armed clash occurred in 65 in Corduene (the region south of Lake Van). P. c. became a direct neighbor of Rome; intensified in P. c. civil strife was accompanied by the intervention of Rome. Under Orode II [c. 57 approx. 37 BC e.] rome. troops under command. M. "Licinius Crassus" invaded Mesopotamia. In 53, near the city of "Karra", the Parthians struck a siege. defeat of Crassus' army. By 40 the Parthians had captured almost all of Asia, Syria and Palestine. P. c. threatened the rule of the Romans in the East. Mediterranean. However, the P. ts., which was an unstable association, was semi-independent. regions (Pliny counted 18 “kingdoms” in it) with different levels of societies. development could not break the economic and political power of Rome. powers. In 3938 BC. e. M. Asia, Syria and Palestine were again conquered by Rome. The failure of the invasion of Antony's armies (36 BC) into Media Atropatena again temporarily stopped Rome's advance beyond the Euphrates. The struggle for the throne between Phraates IV [c. 37 2 BC BC] and Tiridates II, in which the first relied on the help of the Saks, and the second on the support of Rome, led to a new weakening of the P. c. At 20 BC e. P. c. was forced to conclude an agreement with Octavian Augustus, recognize the rights of Rome in Armenia and return the banners and prisoners from the armies of Crassus and Anthony. The border was restored along the river. Euphrates.

In the 1st-2nd centuries. n. e. The process of disintegration of P. c. is becoming more and more noticeable. Interference with internal organs is increasing. case P. c. Rome using the Anti-Parthians. the mood of the Hellenistic inhabitants. city-policies. The contradictions between the Parthian factions are intensifying. nobility and dynastic strife, the role of local Iranian elements in all areas of ideology and culture increases. New course of Parthian policy. nobility appeared already under Artaban III [c. 12 38 or 42], who fought three times for the throne with the proteges of Rome and the Greek. cities of Mesopotamia. Attempts to strengthen the center. the authorities didn't bring it. results. War with Iberia, a new clash with Rome over Armenia and an invasion of the P. c. The Alans forced Artaban III to seek help from the Sakas and concentrate all their forces to defend their main base. possessions. In 36, an uprising broke out in Seleucia on the Tigris; for 7 years the city maintained its independence. After the death of Artabanus III, a long period of struggle for the throne began, ending with the rise to power of Vologes I [c. 51 approx. 80]. P. c. manages to strengthen his influence in Armenia, where in 66 Tiridates, brother of Vologes, was established (see Armenian "Arsacids"). Relations P. c. and Rome are somewhat stabilized, but the invasions of the Saks, Alans (7275) and the fall of Hyrcania and Margiana did not make it possible to use the respite in the wars with Rome to strengthen the P. c. Con. 1 beg. 2nd century marked with new internal unrest and intensification of the struggle with Rome. In the 2nd century. Rome. troops marched through Armenia and Mesopotamia three times and destroyed the Parthians. the capital Ctesiphon (during campaigns 114117, 163165, 194198).

The last period of the history of P. c. (late 2nd early 3rd centuries) characterized by finished. weakening the center. power, increased pressure from nomads and failures in wars with Rome. However, to finally crush P. c. the Romans couldn't. The decline of the P.C., ultimately associated with the crisis of the slaveholding. systems in the Mediterranean in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the growth of unevenness in the development of individual regions of the state and the emergence in the territory. P. c. politically and economically independent. "barbarian" princes, was accelerated by exhausting wars with Rome and an almost continuous struggle for the throne. In the beginning. 3rd century simultaneously ruled by Vologes V, based on Mesopotamia, and Artabanus V, supported by Media. In April 224 owner of a previously dependent on P. c. Parsa Ardashir Papakan inflicted a decisive defeat on Artabanus V in the battle on the plain of Ormizdagan in Media. The son of Artaban V Artavazd was still minting coins until 228, but P. c. no longer exists it fell under the blows of new forces united around the Sassanid dynasty founded by Ardashir Papakan.

In the state device P. c. intertwined elements inherited from the Seleucids, the tribal traditions of the Parni and the system of government of Parthia proper, dating back to the time of the Achaemenids. The king's power was limited by the advice of the clan nobility and priests. Terr. P. c. (excluding the dependent princes of Pars, Elimaida, etc.) was divided into satrapies; to the center. and zap. regions, satrapies were divided into hyparchys, and the latter into states, consisting of several. villages The satrapies had royal estates, from which taxes were sent to the treasury. Hellenistic city-policies retained their self-government and privileges (indicative is the letter of Artabanus III to Susa and the texts found in Dura-Europos); a special category was made up of the so-called. "eastern" Hellenized cities (Uruk, etc.). Data on socio-economic structure of P. c. very few. Mesopotamia was the most economically developed. Despite the meaning. the number of slaves who worked in royal, temple and private ownership. estates, main household the cell remained the village. community. The allotment of a community member or part of it, as shown by the Avroman contracts (Greek 1st century BC and Parthians 1st century AD), could be sold with the consent of neighbors. Parthian. the archive from Nisa (1st century BC) allows us to judge the system of natural and monetary. taxes Through the territory P. c. The most important transit trade routes passed through, including part of the Great Silk Road, which connected the Far East with Rome. From P. c. leather, fabrics, iron and especially silk (imported from China) came to Rome. Parthian. caravans went to Palmyra, Armenia, Egypt and Palestine, the Parthians. merchants settled in the cities of China. From W. we went to P. c. craft products, including glass. Monetary system P. ts. originally copied the Seleucid one; a new standard was established in the 2nd century. BC e. Parthian. inscriptions appear on coins only in the 1st century. n. e. under Vologes I (to whom the codification of the Avesta is also attributed), which is usually seen as a manifestation of anti-Hellenistic. reactions. However, documents from Nisa indicate a predominance of local Iranians. traditions and Zoroastrianism in the East. areas and at an earlier time. Unified state religions in P. c. didn't exist. In the culture of P. c. the processes of interaction between Hellenic and local elements are clearly visible. In zap. regions of P. c. in 12 centuries. n. e. Semitic cultural traditions are being revived, appearing in combination with Greek. and Iranian (Dura-Europos, Hatra). In the east (temples of Nisa, paintings of Kukha-Khoja) Iran. the beginning gets along with the Greek.

Sources on the history of P. c. few. Arsacid rule is difficult to establish from coins and Babylonian tablets. Parthian. There are few written monuments. Basic information on the history of P. c. contained in ancient authors; The most important works are Pompey's Trogus, Plutarch, and Isidore of Charak. Monuments of material culture are still poorly studied. Most means. the results were given by archaeological excavations of Nysa (M. E. Masson, USSR), Dura-Europos (F. Cumont, France, M. "Rostovtsev"), as well as excavations in Susa, Seleucia on the Tigris, Hatra, Ashur and Palmyra. The data of ancient authors and numismatics were most fully summarized in works of the 19th century. G. "Rawlinson" (England) and A. Gutschmid (Germany). The best summary of information on politics. history of P. c. belongs to N. Dibvois (USA). Problems with the occurrence of P. c. A number of works by the Polish historian I. Volsky are devoted to this. Much attention to socio-economic. and cultural history of P. c. paid attention to M. Rostovtsev, as well as W. Tarn (England), who defined P. c. how typical feudal. state This point of view, very common among Westerners. scientists, met with objections in the works of Sov. historians (S.P. Tolstov, M.E. Masson, M.M. Dyakonov, etc.), most recently it has been rejected by some Westerners. authors (American scientist R. Fry). For the history of culture of P. c. German works are of great importance. scientist E. Herzfeld, M. Rostovtsev, French. scientists R. Girshman, D. Schlumberger, E. Villa and Sov. scientists K.V. Trever, M.E. Masson, G.A. Pugachenkova, G.A. Koshelenko.

Lit.: Dyakonov M. M., Essay on the history of ancient Iran, M., 1961; Masson M. E., On the question of the time of the emergence of the Parthian state, "IAN Turkmenistan SSR", 1962, No. 5; his, Peoples and regions of the southern part of Turkmenistan as part of the Parthian state, "Tr. YUTAKE", vol. 5, Ash., 1955; Bokshchanin A.G., Parthia and Rome, part 12, M., 196066; Koshelenko G. A., Urban structure of the policies of Western Parthia, "VDI", 1960, No. 4; Dyakonov I.M., Livshits V.A., Documents from Nisa of the 1st century. BC e., Preliminary results of the work, M., 1960; Koshelenko G. A., Culture of Parthia, M., 1966; Masson M. E., Pugachenkova G. A., Parthian rhytons of Nisa, Ash., 1959; Rawllnson G., The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy, N. Υ., 1872; Gutschmid A., Geschichte Irans..., Tübingen, 1888; Tarn W. W., Seleucid-Parthian Studies, "Proceedings of the British Academy", L., 1930, No. 16; Herzfeld E., Sakastan, "Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran", 1931, Bd 4; Debevoise N., A political history of Parthia, Chi., 1938; Rostovtzeff M., Dura-Europos and its art, Oxf., 1938; Kahrstedt U., Artabanos III und seine Erben, Bern, 1950; Wolski J., The decay of the Iranian Empire of the Seleucids and the chronology of Parthian beginnings, "Berytus", 12, 195657; Frye R. N.. The heritage of Persia, L., 1962; Ghirshman R., Parthes et Sassanides, P., 1962; Ziegler K. H., Die Beziehungen zwischen Rom und dem Partherreich, Wiesbaden, 1964.

V. A. Livshits. Leningrad.

(330-150 BC).
Arsacids(247 BC - 224 AD).

The Parthian Kingdom was founded by tribes that came from the north, some of these tribes during the time of Parthia remained on the shores of the Aral Sea. These were the Sarmatians, Scythians and Massagetae - the ancestors of a number of modern Indo-European peoples, including the Slavs.
In the V-III centuries. BC. The Massagetae were one of the people famous for their victories. Then they repelled the onslaught of the Central Asian powers - Assyria, then Akhmenid Persia and other states.
Arshak led the Parns (or Dakhs) - nomads who lived in the steppes between the Amu Darya and the Caspian Sea. The Parns were a tribal union, named after one of the tribes that were part of it.
In the 3rd century. BC e. protracted wars began between the Seleucids and Ptolemies over southern Syria (“Syrian wars”). The center of gravity of Seleucid policy shifted to the west, while the eastern satrapies were seen only as objects of exploitation. As a result, by the middle of the century, a number of eastern regions, headed by Greek governors: Diodotus in Bactria, Euthydemus in Sogd and Andragoras in Parthia, fell away from the Seleucids.
Soon Parthians, led by Arshak, invaded Parthia. Andragor died, control of the country passed into the hands of Arshak. This most likely happened in 247 BC. e., although other dates are also named.

Arsacid Dynasty

247 BC Arshak I founded Parthian Kingdom/"Country of Anxi"/Country of the Aesir .
247 BC - 224 AD Parthia is ruled by the Arsacid (Arsacid) dynasty. The ancestor of the Arshakids, Arshak, was the leader of the Parni tribe. Arshak I is the founder of the Parthian kingdom, the ancestor of the Arsacid dynasty, “a man of unknown origin, but of great valor” (according to the testimony of the Roman historian Pompey Trog). It is possible that Arshak came from Bactria.
Seleucid king Seleucus II strengthened his position in the west and started a war (230-227 BC) with the goal of returning the lost “upper satrapies”. Initially, the Seleucid troops were successful, but then the Parthians, with the support of nomadic tribes (Apasiaks), managed to win. Although she was not decisive, the revolts in Syria did not allow Seleucus to continue the war.
Arshak in the city of Assak proclaimed himself king of Parthia. In ancient times there was a country called Anxi. That's what it's called in Chinese sources. Its other name is Parthia. It was the city of Arsaak with its stem "As" that gave the name Anxi with the same stem "As", "Ans". The eternal flame in the city of Asaak is mentioned by Isidore of Charak ("Parthian Sites", 11-13), it is a symbol of the worldview of that time. The city itself was located in the region of Astauen, containing the same base "As". Next door was another region of Parthia (its ancient core) - Parthiena with the tomb of the kings (deified ancestors). The city where the tombs were located is also named. This is Parfavnisa or Nisaya, and Isidore of Charak points out that Nisaya is a Greek name. Presumably, in Parthia itself the local name - Parfavnisa - was much more common. Old Nisa and New Nisa - these names have survived to this day. The settlements are located near Ashgabat.
“...A large mountain range stretches from northeast to southwest (Ural). It separates Greater Sweden (Great Scythia) from other countries. Not far south of it is the Country of the Turks (Turkmenistan). Odin had large possessions there...” The Chinese traveler Zhang Qian pointed out: “From Davan to Anxi, although they speak differently, they are very similar in customs and understand each other in conversations...” “The state of Davan was located in Fergana (Uzbekistan) and mountains of the Tien Shan. Anxi is Parthia."
"They are bearded, bulging-eyed, and for the most part tall and fair-haired. They are skilled in trade and craft. They are ancient farmers and herders, settled tribes and semi-nomadic."
From the Kushan and Parthian frescoes and paintings, bearded Aryans look at us with their bulging eyes, who created the myth of Asgard and embodied it in one of the Aryan states - Anxi-Parthia.

The cult of the deification of ancestors

Asgard

The home of the Aesir is called Asgard (zatomis). Asgard is located near Idavell Field. When the gods were just beginning to build, a giant master came to them and promised to build a fortress in three months that would be impregnable to the giants, and as a reward he demanded the goddess Freya, the sun and the moon. On the advice of Loki, the aces agreed, but when they saw that the giant would manage to build the fortress on time, they threatened Loki with brutal death if he did not prevent the master from fulfilling the terms of the deal. Loki had to use a trick. The giant was helped in his work by the horse Svadilfari. Having turned into a mare, Loki distracted the horse from work, and the builder did not have time to finish it on time. The giant realized that he had been deceived and fell into a rage. Then the Ases called Thor, and he killed the giant with his hammer. And Loki gave birth to a foal with eight legs - Odin's future horse Sleipnir.
From the beginning, the gods erected a sanctuary with twelve thrones and the throne of Odin. Everything in it is like pure gold, and it is called the Hall of Joy. Then they built an equally beautiful sanctuary of the goddesses - Vingolv and a house in which they placed a blacksmith's forge, and made an anvil, a hammer and other tools. They made things from stone, from wood and from metal, which is called gold. And that is why it was called the golden age.
From the stones that the cow Audumla licked, the man Storm arose. His son Bor married Bestla, the daughter of the giant Belthorn, and they had three sons (three cultures, three demiurges) - Odin, Vili and Ve.
Odin is the Father of all the Fallen. He owns a palace called Valhalla. Einieri live there - brave warriors who fell in battle. Warriors are selected for Valhalla by the Valkyries, who serve them there during feasts.
At feasts in Valhalla, the Einherjar drink the honeyed milk of the goat Heidrun, who plucks the leaves of the ash tree Yggdrasil, and eat the inexhaustible meat of the boar Sehrimnir - it is cooked by the cook Andhrimnir in the cauldron Eldhrimnir. One throws all the food to two wolves - Geri and Freki - and they drink only wine. The ravens Hugin and Munin sit on his shoulders. From them he learns about everything that happens in the world.
At the entrance to Valhalla there is the Valgrid Gate, and in front of them is the Glasir (“Shining”) Grove, all the leaves in it seem to be made of red gold.
One often appears in the form of a snake, raven, eagle, horse and wolf. This is the god of magical knowledge, who knows the runes - sacred writings... in order to recognize the runes, he sacrifices himself and, pierced by his own spear, hangs on the ash tree Yggdrasil (Tree of Life) for nine days.

Eastern runes

The general outline and all elements of the divine Scandinavian runes correspond to those found in Mongolia (older).
Divine Runes of the 2nd millennium BC. left on the rocks of the Mongolian Altai. Along with them on the rocks are depicted the Sun, horses, and wild animals. In the places where they were found (the Tsagan-Gol valley), Turkic Runes are not found at all. Signs and drawings are carved into dark rock outcrops.
The same Aryan tamgas, or runes, can be traced in subsequent centuries in Central Asia and the Black Sea region.
Arius Oseden (Jason) is revered as a descendant of Veles; he had a brother, Troyan. Arius and Troyan had a father, Dvoyan, and a grandfather, Odin. One was considered the incarnation of Veles. The creation of the Runes by Odin occurred as a result of a mystical insight when Odin pierced himself with a spear on the World Tree, the ash tree Ygdrassil.
"I know that I was hanging on a windy tree
Nine whole nights, pierced by a spear,
Given to Odin, to himself;
On the Tree that no one knows about
Where do its roots come from?
They gave me neither food nor horn (drink);
I peered down, I caught the Runes,
And as much as he taught them, he cried so much..."
Odinets, the ruler of As-grad, gave the Proto-Slavs and Proto-Scandinavians runic writing. Earthly Odin gave the Runes to the Aesir (Yasuns), Dain gave the Runes to the Alves, Dvalin gave the Runes to the Dvergs, and Alevid gave them to the giant Jotuns. And this happened at the Irian Tree, at the sources of the sacred Ra River (Volga).
In Scandinavia, the crane was associated with Odin, to whom the “living codes” of the Universe were revealed in the form of runes. Shamans of ancient Britain and Northern Europe carried pouches made from crane skin that contained runes or other objects of power.
The winged horse appears in the myths and traditions of most world cultures. In Scandinavian myths it was Sleipnir, an eight-legged horse that carried the god Odin to other worlds. His teeth were painted with runes, indicating that he carried the language of the Cosmos within him.

Slavic runes

SLAVIC RUNES are a mixture of northern and southern Runes. Slavic Runes were used not only to convey speech sounds. Runes were revered as a sacred gift of the gods and ancestors, and magical powers were attributed to them. Mastery of the secrets of the Runes was considered necessary for fortune telling by Runes, for imparting the power of weapons (on which runes were carved), and for performing magic. Each clan had a family sign, knitted from runes. The Slavs believed that Runes provided the protection of their ancestors. The main runic row was built according to the Slavic Zodiac.

Turkic runes

By the 8th century. AD These are the earliest monuments of Turkic writing that have survived to this day. They are made on stone and consist of only consonant letters (vowels were implied) - such texts are called runic. On some rocks, writings in black and red ink have survived, indicating the use of writing instruments, brushes, and reed pens. Pocket knives were found in the burial mounds nearby, and an inkwell was also found.
Turkic runes are written using different alphabets, but in one and, moreover, completely literary language. It is known that the first written evidence of Turkic-speaking peoples dates back to the 3rd century BC.
Based on the Turkic runes of Central Asia and Southern Siberia, one can judge the degree of education of different layers of society at that time. Texts, for example, painted on rocks in Khakassia, Tuva and Mongolia, are signed with the titled names of feudal lords of the 9th-10th centuries. AD She reminded the nobility of her high social position even where humility would have been more appropriate. On the walls of some East Turkestan temples of the 7th-12th centuries. AD titles are indicated that have no equal in pomp. This tradition extended to all members of aristocratic families.
Judging by the inscriptions on the Yenisei and Orkhon memorial steles, one can judge that their authors and performers were professionals.
Among the texts there are church hymns, legends, religious and philosophical records, etc. Some of them contain thousands of characters and are partially written in Middle Persian and other languages. The compilation of such texts required knowledge in various fields of science, and it can be argued that in the era of runic writing, the Turks already had a special educated layer.
Balder (the son of Odin, a culture related to the culture of Odin), the most beautiful and wise of the Aesir, lived in the palace of Breidablik ("Wide Splendor"), the most beautiful of which is not in Asgard. Suddenly he began to have dreams foreshadowing danger. Then Frigg took an oath from all things and creatures that they would not touch Balder. And when she told about this, Balder and the other aces began to have fun: Balder stood on the field of the Thing (meetings), and others threw stones at him, shot arrows, and chopped him with a sword. But nothing harmed Balder. His invulnerability did not please the envious Loki. He found out from Frig that she did not take an oath from a young shoot of mistletoe growing west of Valhalla. Loki snatched this escape and went to the field of the Thing. There he gave escape to the blind Hed, and he threw him at Balder, as Loki ordered him to do. The rod pierced Balder, and he fell dead to the ground. And this was the greatest grief for gods and people. The Aesir carried Balder's body to the sea and put it in a boat, but only the giantess Hurrokin managed to push this boat into the water. Unable to bear the grief, Balder's wife Naina (the collective soul of this people) died, and she was burned in the boat along with Balder. And Balder’s brother Hermod went to the mistress of the kingdom of the dead, Hel, to bring him back to Asgard. And Hel promised that Balder would return to the Aesir if everything living and dead on earth cried for him. And everyone cried, except for the giantess Tekk, and this was the reincarnated Loki. And Balder remained in the kingdom of the dead. Loki's aces took stern revenge on Balder. They caught him and tied him up with his intestines, and Skadi hung a poisonous snake over Loki’s face, the poison of which brought him torment, although his wife Sigyn put the cup under the dripping poison. When drops of poison fell on Loki, he shuddered, causing earthquakes. And he will suffer until the end of the world. Each ace in Asgard has his own palace. The hall of Odin (demiurge), decorated with silver, is called Valaskjalv. In it he sits on a throne called Hlidskjalf. From here he sees all worlds.

God Thor

God Thor

Thor, the strongest of all gods and people, is considered the son of Odin. Thor's domain is called Trudvangar ("Fields of Power"), or Trudheim. There is his palace Bilskirnir, the most spacious in Asgard: it accommodates five hundred chambers and another forty. Thor rides in a chariot drawn by two goats. He has three treasures - the hammer Mjollnir, a belt of strength and iron gauntlets, which he puts on when he grabs the hammer. Thor protects Asgard and Midgard, the world of people, from giants...
In the palace of Noatun (“Shipshed”), which is located in the sky and at the same time by the sea, Njord lives. He is very rich, controls the wind, sea and fire, patronizes navigation, fishing and hunting sea animals. Njord's son Frey is the most glorious of the aces. He is the god of harvest and wealth, who controls rain and sunlight.
Njord's daughter's name is Freya. She is the goddess of fertility, love and beauty. She rides in a chariot drawn by two cats, and lives in the spacious and beautiful chambers of Sessrumnir, which are located in the hall of Folkwang ("Battlefield"). Freya takes half of the dead from the battlefield, and the other goes to Odin. Freya's husband's name is Od. He went on long journeys, and Freya is looking for him and crying for him with golden tears. They have a daughter, Khnoss ("Treasure"), who is so beautiful that everything beautiful in the world is called by her name.
Njord and Freyr are Vanirs by origin (Atlanto-Aryan culture). The Vanir gods live in a country called Vanaheim.
Cold waves splash at the hall called Sekkvabekk. The goddess Saga lives in it. Every day she drinks from gold-plated cups with Odin.
And also living in Asgard are the healing goddess Eir, the young maiden Gefion, Fulla with her flowing hair and a golden bandage on her head, the goddess of love Sjoven and the goddess of glory Lovn, the smart and curious Ver, from whom you can’t hide anything, the wise Snotra. Var eavesdrops on people's oaths and vows. Xiong guards the doors in the palaces so that those who are not allowed do not enter them. Khlin protects everyone from danger. She rides on her horse to different countries on orders from Frigga.
In a region covered with bushes and tall grasses, lives the silent ace Vidar, another son of Odin. He is strong almost like Thor and will avenge his father during the death of the gods (the death of Asgardian culture).
And the son of Balder Forseti (“Chairman of the Thing”) is the owner of the chambers of Glitnir, which are decorated with pillars of gold and covered with silver. This is how he resolves disputes, and everyone leaves him in peace and harmony.
Tyr is the god of victory, he is the most courageous and daring.
At the edge of heaven, near the Bifrost Bridge, in the palace of Himinbjorg (World of Archangels) lives Heimdall, the white ace, the guardian of the gods, protecting them from the giants. He has a horn, the Gjallarhorn, which he will blow before the end of the world."
In the ancient tale of Helgi, one can find a Valkyrie openly patronizing the hero. She is his beloved.
Valkyries obey Odin, participate in awarding victories and distributing deaths in battles. And they not only transport the warriors to Valhalla, but also bring them drinks and look after the banquet table. The Supreme Ace roughly punished one of the Valkyries for giving victory to the wrong person. This is a terrible punishment for the Valkyrie: she could no longer participate in battles and had to get married.
Their names: Hild - “battle”, Herfjötur - “fetters of the army”, Hlökk - “the sound of battle”, Christ - “stunning”, Mist - “foggy”, Labor - “strength”... There are 12 of them in total.
In the museums of Ashgabat and Moscow there are winged maidens depicted on coins and seals of Parthia. They are feminine, beautiful, their wings are like the wings of angels..."
"Ardvisura Anahita is the mother goddess and goddess of the sacred waters of Asgard. Ardvi means water.
There are eyes - gems that are sunny
Full of light.
Anahita's eyes shine with their own
Light like the stars
Like roses from heaven!
Just not enough comparisons,
There aren't enough flowers in Asgard
With their scent
Under the golden crowns of the Glasir grove,
To the shades of the goddess's eyes
Capture.
Wave of living hair
Radiant. There are no words -
I'm looking for words.

Let the mystery not die... Anahita is Bagbartu - the wife of the Urartian god Haldi, Aphrodite, who was revered by the Greeks and the Swan Princess (Swan Goddess)."

The prototype of Heavenly Asgard (Zatomis) - the city of the gods was located in the foothills of the Kopetdag (Turkmenistan, Iran). In the west, Asgard was called Nysa. Nisa, the spiritual center of Parthia, occupied two hills near the modern village of Bagir near Ashgabat. On one of the two hills is the royal fortress of the Arsacids, there were palaces with economic services, temples, wine storage facilities, and the location of the guard. This place is now called Old Nisa. It was the residence of the Parthian rulers. Individual architectural objects have been studied here. It was possible to restore the approximate appearance of some of them.
Asgard was the spiritual center of the most powerful and extensive of the states of the East. It was a tomb, a city of worship of ancient kings, a city of temples and mausoleums, amazing treasuries of the kings of Parthia.

Asgard. Valhalla is the palace of the Scandinavian god Odin in the foothills of Kopetlag. Reconstruction.

"The country in Asia east of Tanaquisl is called the Country of the Aesir, or the home of the Aesir, and the capital of the country was called Asgard. The ruler there was one who was called Odin. There was a large temple. According to ancient custom, there were twelve high priests in it. They were supposed to perform sacrifices and judge the people. They were called diyas, or lords" (Saga of the Ynglings, II).
The “Square House” housed twelve similar rooms with treasures and works of art. Each room was dedicated to one of the twelve aces. When gifts to the Ases from different lands filled this treasury, the doorways of the rooms, one after another, were walled up and sealed. The priests did this. Priests in Scandinavian myths were often identified with the Aesir themselves, and no one dared to enter the treasury rooms after them.
Over time, all the rooms of the treasury of the Aesir were filled with gifts coming from many related tribes and even from distant Thrace. After this, a second row of storerooms is built. But these storerooms were also filled, and again the treasury of the aces is expanding.
In one of the treasury rooms, ivory rhytons with a height of 30 to 60 cm were kept. They date back to the 2nd century. BC. These ritual vessels ended at the bottom with figurines of animals and fantastic creatures, many of them can be recognized from the descriptions in the Icelandic sagas. Some of the rhytons are very similar to Thracian ones of the same era. The upper part of the rhytons is decorated with relief friezes. The treasury with rhytons belonged to the main god Odin. The Younger Edda says that he does not need treats, but only wine. And next to the treasury there was a large wine storage facility.
The courtyard, surrounded by storage rooms, is surrounded by a columned portico. Parthia's possessions extended to India. Furniture parts were found in Old Nisa; they are made of ivory.

Idawell-field("ida" - occupation, activity, Icelandic "vala" and the Russian word "boulder" - a rounded stone, Latvian "velt" and ancient Indian "valati" - "turn", as well as "roll") - "playing with a ball", " skating." This is a field for playing with a ball.
In the “Divination of the Völva” it is said, “The Ases meet on the Idavel-field, they talk about the mighty belt of the world and remember the glorious events and runes of the ancient great god. Again the golden tavlei that they once served for the game should be found in the meadow in the tall grass ". Idavel-field is translated as “evergreen field”, “shining field”, “field of tireless labor activity”.
The balls for the game were made of plaster, with remains of plants inside them. Dry plants lightened the weight of such a ball and made it stronger. The game was played on a field resembling a modern stadium.
The stadium-like field is located near Mansurdepe, not far from Nisa. The aces gathered there for games and conversations.
The second field with plaster balls was in Nysa itself in the center of Asgard.
In Ossetia, a similar game was once also widespread - “game of stones”:
Once at dawn - it was still barely light -
Selected from each quarter
All the young men with weapons came out to fight,
To have fun with the Nart game.
Participants flocked to the games field
And they were preparing for the competition there,
To the fight son, to throwing stones,
And only then did they leave the horses,
When we were already on the playing field...
So they started playing: they rolled stones,
Testing your strength in a competition.
Here is the first stone rolling down the mountain,
The firstborn of the game thunders and jumps.
But Uryzmag, with all his might,
He grabbed a huge stone on the fly.
Stones are rushing, Urizmag catches them
And a new row of stones is already being prepared.
Khamyts quickly takes those stones,
Borse passes it on one at a time.

On the second hill was New Nisa. Temple of New Nisa was built in the III-II centuries. BC. and destroyed in the 1st century. BC. The temple was built on a platform made of mud brick. The height of the platform is about a meter. The back part of it was adjacent to the city wall, and it was surrounded on three sides by columns. The entrance was located in the center of the long side. The building is two-level. The lower tier corresponded in height to the columned portico. It was decorated with wall semi-columns and terracotta tiles. The half-columns and the narrow strip of the frieze were black. And the entire wall of the first tier is crimson (“as if made of pure gold”). The upper tier is white (“it looks like it’s made of silver”).

Asgard. Temple near the city wall. Reconstruction.

At this sanctuary (New Nisa) there was " Grove Glasir".
In the city of the Aesir there were trees with golden leaves. The Younger Edda remembers a whole grove of such trees. The grove was called Glasir. The golden foliage was a delight to the eye. We are talking about ornamental peach trees with purple leaves. The Latin name of this variety marks the golden color of the foliage as the most important feature. More precisely, it is the color of red gold (Shchepotyev F.L. Dendrology. M.-L., 1949, p. 193).
In Kopetdag there were only cult centers dedicated to the Ases, the deified ancestors of the Parthians and Scandinavians. These ancestors came from southwestern Mongolia through Central Asia (the Ustyug plateau region), then some of them descended to the Kopet Dag. They came from Great Svityoda (Mongolia) and named the land after their own name - Parthia.
The authority of the Arsacids was great; many blood relatives of the Parthian rulers were leaders and rulers of neighboring tribes.
The Arsacids themselves tried to have their relatives on the thrones of neighboring peoples. Thus, “besides Persia, the Arsacids reigned in Armenia, Georgia, Agvania and the Massagetae.” Parthia's possessions extended to India. One of the branches of the Arsacids reigned north of the Caucasus over the Lpins.

The formation of Parthia as an independent power coincided with the separation of Greco-Bactria from the Seleucids and presumably dates back to 250 BC. e. Initially, its former Seleucid satrap declared himself king of Parthia. But soon the country was captured by tribes roaming nearby, whose leader Arshak in 247 BC. e. took the royal title. In its development, Parthia has come a long way from one of the small outlying possessions of the then cultural world to a powerful power that acted as the heir of the Seleucids and a stubborn rival of Rome.

Already the first ruler of Parthia, Arshak, made a lot of efforts to increase his possessions and annexed neighboring Hyrcania (the region southeast of the Caspian Sea). Soon he had to face the Seleucids, who were seeking to restore their power in the east, but victory this time remained with the Parthians. The Parthians began to strengthen their state, build fortresses, and issue their own coins. Based on the name of the founder of the dynasty, subsequent rulers of Parthia adopted the name Arshak as one of their throne names. On the reverse side of the coins of the new state, an image of a seated Arshak with the favorite Parthian weapon, a bow, began to be placed in his hand.

Serious trials awaited the young state in 209 BC. e., when Antiochus III made a desperate attempt to regain the eastern satrapies. The outcome of the military clashes was generally unsuccessful for Parthia, but the country retained its independence, perhaps formally recognizing the supremacy of the Seleucids. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Seleucid power after the death of Antiochus III, the strengthened Parthia decisively switched to an active foreign policy. The country was headed by one of the outstanding representatives of the Arsacidean dynasty, Mithridates I (171 - 138 BC), who first annexed Media and then extended his power to Mesopotamia, where in 141 BC. e. was recognized as "king" in Babylon. The Seleucids' attempts to rectify the situation ended in failure.

But Parthia also faced difficulties. The powerful movement of nomadic tribes that overthrew Greco-Bactria also affected the eastern regions of Parthia. The Arsacid rulers persistently tried to protect the country from a new danger. In this difficult struggle, two Parthian kings died. Only Mithridates II (123-87 BC) managed to localize the constant threat, allocating a special province in the east for the Saka tribes, which received the name Sakastan, which has survived to this day in the form of Seistan.

Now the Arsacids could fearlessly continue their advance to the west, and Mithridates II energetically took up the implementation of these plans. Having supported one of the contenders for the Armenian throne, he received in return significant territorial gains. Now Parthia has become a fairly large power, which, in addition to the Parthian lands, included the entire territory of modern Iran and rich Mesopotamia. The triumphant Mithridates II took the title “king of kings” and the nickname “great.” Advancement to the west directly led to a clash with Rome. Already under Mithridates II, the Parthians negotiated with the Roman commander Sulla. However, neither Parthia nor Rome foresaw the severity of the contradictions that divided these two major powers and turned them into permanent opponents. They appeared in full force only in the middle of the 1st century. BC e. The Romans had already firmly taken possession of Asia Minor and Syria and, convinced that it was the Parthians who became the main obstacle to their further expansion, they made the first attempt to inflict a decisive military blow on Parthia. The commander Crassus stood at the head of the Roman troops in the east. However, in 53 BC. e. In Northern Mesopotamia, near the city of Carrhae, the Romans suffered a crushing defeat. Crassus himself and a significant part of his army died. Many Romans were captured and settled on the eastern outskirts of Parthia - in Margian. This victory shook the position of the Romans in Asia and gave hope to the peoples who found themselves under their yoke. The Parthians moved their capital further west to Ctesiphon, on the left bank of the Tigris. However, further attempts by the Parthians to develop such a spectacular victory were unsuccessful. They temporarily captured Syria, Asia Minor and Palestine, but were unable to hold these areas. Gradually the Parthians were pushed back to the Euphrates, but the Roman campaign in Media in 38 BC. e. ultimately ended in failure.

Civil strife that soon began in Parthia itself, skillfully used and incited by Rome, brought these temporary successes to naught. Roman proteges ended up on the Parthian throne. Political circles seeking to stabilize the situation brought them to power in 11 Sh. representative of the so-called younger Arsacids - Artabanus III. Closely associated with the nomadic tribes of the deep regions of Parthia, Artaban III decisively advocates the development of his own, Arfian traditions, makes an attempt to strengthen centralization in the management of the empire, which consisted of heterogeneous parts. The self-government of large urban centers in Mesopotamia and Elam is limited, and the thrones of the domains subject to the Parthians are erected representatives of the Arsacid dynasty. But partial reforms could not lead to the creation of a centralized state, and internal unrest, often associated with the question of succession to the throne, flared up every now and then with unabated force.

From the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. n. e. There is a weakening of the Parthian state, marked by the growth of independence of individual provinces, which were often headed by members of the numerous Arsacid clan or representatives of other noble Parthian families. Hyrcania shows tendencies toward separatism, sending its envoys directly to Rome; an independent ruler is established in Margiana, calling himself on coins the same as the ruling Arsacid, “king of kings.” In the first half of the 2nd century. n. e. Parthia was repeatedly attacked by Roman armies, first led by Emperor Trajan and then by Hadrian. Armenia and Mesopotamia are declared Roman provinces, the Parthian capital Ctesifoks is sacked. However, Rome is no longer able to retain what it captured, and soon it abandons new acquisitions. However, the attempts of the Parthians in the second half of the 2nd century. n. e. to take revenge again encourages the Romans to go on the offensive, marked by the destruction of Ctesiphon, but they do not have enough strength to retain the captured areas. As a result of a stubborn struggle that lasted more than two centuries, neither side was able to win a decisive victory.

Of course, military defeats weakened Parthia, where centrifugal tendencies were making themselves felt more and more insistently. The former provinces and vassal kingdoms practically turned into independent states; the throne of the “king of kings” was continually challenged by representatives of the ruling dynasty, further dividing the power into warring parties. Under these conditions, the rise of one of the vassal kingdoms—Persida—was only an outward manifestation of a long-overdue explosion. In the 20s of the 3rd century. Arsacid Parthia submits to the forces that have rallied around a new contender for supreme power - Artashir Sassanid from Persia.

The emergence of Parthia as a major power was due to a number of factors. The fighting qualities of the Parthian cavalry, which consisted of agile archers and heavily armed warriors in shells and armor, also played a significant role here. But the main thing was the level of socio-economic development of the countries of the Near and Middle East and the political situation that developed here. In the IV-III centuries. BC e. everywhere there was intensive development of urban life, crafts, and international trade. However, the Seleucids were unable to ensure the political unity of the developing regions and ceded this role to the Parthian state.

The Parthian government paid great attention to issues of international trade. Special road plans were drawn up with descriptions of the routes, and guards were assigned to protect merchant caravans. The Parthians jealously guarded their monopoly on the overland trade routes connecting west and east, and prevented the Chinese from trying to reach Rome on their own. The significant progress of internal trade in the Parthian period is also indicative, as evidenced, for example, by the widespread use in Margiana in the 1st-3rd centuries. n. e. small copper coins intended specifically for retail purchase and sale.

A noticeable shift in urban life occurred during the reign of the Arsacids in the eastern regions of their possessions. Thus, a number of large urban centers developed in Parthia itself. Of these, the most famous was the city of Nisa, not far from which were the royal residence and tombs of the elder Arsacids. The capital of Margiana reaches enormous proportions, occupying the territory of the Gyaur-Kala settlement of 4 square meters. km.

Parthian society and culture.

The intensive development of Parthia could not but affect social relations, which reached significant class antagonism. Slave labor played a major role in the economy. Sources report a significant number of slaves in Parthia, with the children of slaves also remaining slaves. The forms of exploitation of slaves were very different. Their labor was used in mines, on agricultural estates, and in households. Up to 500 slaves worked on individual estates. In agriculture, the labor of slaves was used, who were the property of the slave owner, but were planted on the owner’s land and could use part of the income to satisfy their own needs. Such partial liberation of slaves indicates the search for profitable forms of exploitation of the forced population. The position of ordinary community members was not easy either. They paid large taxes to the state; their cultivation of the land was considered a state service and was strictly controlled. The social elite of the society was formed by the royal family of Arshaki-ZOB, which owned vast lands, and the Parthian nobility, whose economic initiative largely determined its significant role in the state.

The existing system of operation required the precise work of the administrative and fiscal apparatus of the central government. However, the internal structure of the Parthian state was distinguished by a certain inconsistency and did not fully meet these tasks. It reflected trends associated with the desire to create a strong centralized power, and a certain amorphousness of political bodies bearing the features of an archaic social structure. Thus, royal power was considered as belonging to the Arsacid family as a whole, and the king was elected by a council - tribal nobility and priests. Often, it was not the son, but the brother of the deceased ruler or an even more distant relative who became king; There is also information about the removal of kings by the council of the nobility. With the expansion of the borders of the Parthian state, it included small semi-dependent kingdoms with local rulers, Greek cities of Mesopotamia and other regions, essentially enjoying autonomy. As a result, Parthia did not represent a single centralized state, which was a constant source of its internal weakness.

The complex and heterogeneous composition of the Parthian state was clearly reflected in the culture of the Parthian era. Mesopotamia and neighboring regions, which had their own cultural tradition, were noticeably different from Parthia itself and the eastern part of the entire state as a whole. The formation of some common features was caused by the active use of forms of Greek culture, attitudes towards which changed over the centuries-old history of the Arsacid state. In the early period, in the III-I centuries. BC e., the influence of the Greek canons was very strong and the Parthian kings themselves considered it their duty to call themselves Hellenic lovers (philhellenes) in the official title. Hellenization widely embraced court circles and the Parthian nobility. This is especially clearly seen in the example of the royal residence in Nisa, not far from Ashgabat, which was carefully studied by Soviet archaeologists. Two worlds, two cultural layers are clearly visible here. The ancient traditions of monumental adobe architecture, the heavy plans of the square state halls, the Zoroastrian names in the documents of the palace archive and the Zoroastrian calendar clearly indicate deep local roots. At the same time, magnificent capitals of the Corinthian order are widely used in architectural decoration; marble statues made in the best traditions of Hellenistic sculpture are carefully preserved in the royal treasury. The combination of these two cultural traditions can be seen in the example of large rhyton horns carved from ivory. The form is traditionally oriental, and some of the subjects are undoubtedly Greek, including images of the twelve Olympian deities.

From the 1st century n. e. there is an active affirmation of the Parthian, oriental motifs and canons proper, the Greek principle appears in a highly processed form. Thus, inscriptions in the Parthian language appear on coins, gradually replacing Greek ones, which become increasingly illegible and distorted. In Mesopotamia, palace buildings of the Greek type are replaced by majestic complexes with extensive use of large premises open only on one side - ivans. Temples are sometimes built on the model of the more ancient cult architecture of Mesopotamia, and in some cases they are simply copied from Zoroastrian fire temples. The sculpture of this time is characterized by somewhat ponderous, seemingly frozen statues of gods and secular rulers, deployed frontally: the figures in the composition are monotonously repeated, any movement and liveliness are deliberately excluded. In art, along with cult and genre scenes, some attention is paid to the personality of the king, his deification and the entire dynasty as a whole. The culture of the Parthian era reveals a complex picture of the interaction of various elements, and the Parthian traditions proper were not strong enough to lead to cultural unity.